The Complex Relationship Between Public Transportation and Traffic Congestion

Traffic Congestion and Public Transport

• Despite the expectation that having good public transportation would reduce the number of people using personal vehicles and ease traffic congestion, this doesn't always happen. Many cities have invested heavily in public transit systems, but traffic jams persist or even get worse.
• Take London, for example. It has one of the world's most extensive public transportation networks, including subways, trains, buses, boats, trams, and more. However, London consistently ranks high in traffic congestion, and the number of registered cars in the city keeps increasing, showing that public transport alone doesn't discourage people from owning cars.
• Similarly, cities like Bogotá and Curitiba in South America have efficient bus systems that gained international recognition. Still, they struggle with traffic congestion and score high on congestion measures.
• In India, Delhi has dedicated a large part of its land to roads, developed an extensive metro system, and operates a sizable fleet of CNG-powered buses, along with a BRTS. Yet, traffic congestion remains a significant problem. Pune, another Indian city, has invested in public transport but is one of the most congested cities globally.
• Even Bengaluru, known as India's tech hub, has made substantial improvements in public transportation, including a metro system, a vast bus network, and various options for alternative transit. Despite these efforts, it's the second-most congested city according to the TomTom index, with traffic conditions getting worse.

The Complex Appeal of Personal Vehicles

• To figure out why traffic congestion remains a problem despite having good public transport, we need to understand why many people still prefer using their own cars. People who drive cars regularly choose them over public transport because they see several advantages in owning a personal vehicle.
• These advantages include the feeling of freedom and independence, the ability to set their own schedules, the comfort of a private space, the reliability of having their vehicle always available, and the sense of security that comes with it. For many, driving is a pleasant experience, especially when they're out with their families. Owning a car can also symbolize status and carry cultural and psychological importance.
• Moreover, in recent years, car manufacturers have made significant progress in addressing some of the downsides associated with personal vehicles. Modern cars are more eco-friendly, energy-efficient, and come equipped with safety features like airbags. Road construction projects also prioritize safety, making personal vehicles even more attractive to people.

The Global Rise of Car Usage

The evidence shows that, despite the environmental improvements in personal vehicles and the proliferation of public transportation systems, the use of cars continues to rise globally. Between 1950 and 1990, the number of motorized vehicles worldwide increased significantly, with approximately 80 percent of them dedicated to personal transportation. This trend was not limited to a specific region; passenger kilometers by private cars per capita increased by 90 percent in Western Europe between 1970 and 1990.

Public Transportation: An Ongoing Necessity

Despite the challenges and the persistent appeal of personal vehicles, public transportation remains a critical element of urban planning and development. There are three compelling arguments that continue to support the importance of public transport in cities:

• Environmental Benefits: Public transportation significantly reduces carbon emissions, leading to a notable reduction in air pollutants and improved air quality. These environmental advantages directly translate into health benefits for city residents, particularly through decreased respiratory ailments. Moreover, public transport reduces noise pollution and promotes fuel efficiency, contributing to a cleaner and healthier urban environment.
• Equity: Public transportation serves as an essential lifeline for the urban poor and those who do not own cars or two-wheelers. In many cities, this demographic constitutes the majority of the population. Public transport offers reliable and affordable mobility solutions, ensuring that transportation remains accessible to all segments of society.
• Counterbalance to Private Transport: City dynamics evolve over time, and circumstances may lead more individuals to choose public transport over personal vehicles. Factors such as worsening traffic congestion, longer commute times, increased stress, rising costs associated with car ownership, and disincentives imposed by city administrations can influence people's transportation choices. Public transportation must remain a viable and attractive option for these commuters.

Towards a Balanced Future

• While public transport alone may not eliminate traffic congestion, it remains an essential component of urban mobility solutions.
• Cities should adopt a multifaceted approach to address congestion effectively.
• This approach should not only focus on improving public transport but also on policies that target the functional, psychological, and cultural values associated with personal vehicles.
• Additionally, enhancing the performance of public transport to bridge the gap between personal vehicles and public transportation is crucial.

The relationship between public transportation and traffic congestion is complex and multifaceted. While public transport offers numerous environmental, safety, and equity advantages, it does not always succeed in reducing traffic congestion as expected. The appeal of personal vehicles, driven by factors like freedom, comfort, and cultural significance, continues to contribute to rising car usage globally. Nevertheless, public transportation remains indispensable in addressing urban challenges and providing accessible mobility options for all residents. Cities must continue to invest in both improving public transport and implementing policies that encourage a shift away from personal vehicles, creating a more balanced and sustainable urban transportation ecosystem.

Urbanization and Its Paradoxes: Opportunities and Obstacles in India

Urbanization is a common aspect of economic development, typically involving the migration of surplus rural population to urban areas as industrial centers grow. This transformation is closely tied to modernization and industrialization, marking a historic global shift from rural to predominantly urban culture. While urbanization offers opportunities for wealth and social mobility, it often unfolds in a haphazard and unplanned manner, particularly during rapid industrialization. According to the 2011 Census, India's urbanization rate stood at 31.2%, a significant increase from 27.8% in 2001.

Projections indicate that around 590 million people will reside in cities by 2030, underscoring the urgency of comprehending the growth patterns and their impact on the population. Causes of Rapid Urbanization The rapid urbanization phenomenon can be attributed to several key factors: 

1. Natural Population Growth: Urbanization is driven by the high rate of natural population increase, where cities experience a greater growth rate compared to rural areas. This can be attributed to improved healthcare services, better access to medical facilities, safe drinking water, and enhanced sanitation infrastructure, which contribute to higher survival rates in urban settings. 

2. Rural-Urban Migration: Rural-to-urban migration is a significant driver of rapid urbanization in India. The emergence of manufacturing and trade activities due to industrial development creates job opportunities and the promise of higher incomes, attracting rural residents to urban areas. This migration is often motivated by the prospects of employment and economic advancement. 

3. Industrial and Agricultural Development: The substantial public investments in industries, mining, and sustainable agricultural practices have fueled urbanization. The growth of industries, including their associated ancillary units, contributes to the development of urban centers. Likewise, the expansion of business and trade, accompanied by the establishment of vibrant markets, fosters urbanization in regions closely linked to industrial and trade growth. 

4. Push and Pull Factors: Rural-to-urban migration is influenced by both pull and push factors. Pull factors include the allure of urban opportunities, while push factors encompass economic constraints, lack of essential facilities, and even political unrest in rural areas, prompting individuals to seek better prospects in urban settings.

Consequences of Rapid Urbanization Consequences of rapid urbanization can be divided into both positive and negative aspects: 

Positive Aspects: 

1. Economic Growth: Rapid industrialization leads to the establishment of numerous industrial cities. These urban areas witness the growth of manufacturing units, ancillary industries, and the service sector, contributing to economic development. 

2. Employment Opportunities : Urbanization creates new job opportunities in expanding sectors like manufacturing and services. This results in rural-urban migration as people seek employment in these urban centers, further promoting industrialization and urbanization. 

3. Modernization and Changed Attitudes: Urbanization brings about changes in the mindset and behaviors of urban residents, fostering modernization and a progressive outlook. This shift indirectly contributes to accelerated economic development. 

Negative Aspects: 

1. Congestion: Rapid urbanization leads to increased congestion in urban areas, causing problems such as traffic jams and high population density. Managing these issues becomes challenging and costly. 

2. Low Quality of Life: The surge in urban population can result in various urban problems, including housing shortages, inadequate access to education and healthcare, the growth of slums, unemployment, violence, and overcrowding. These factors collectively lead to a decline in the overall quality of life in urban areas. 

3. Loss of Rural Productivity: Large-scale rural-to-urban migration diminishes productivity in rural regions. This trend negatively impacts the rural economy, contributing to unfavorable conditions in villages. Over time, excessive urbanization can have detrimental consequences.

The significance of Urban Living The significance of urban living is underscored by several key factors:

Enhanced Access to Facilities: Urban living is associated with higher literacy rates, improved access to education, better healthcare, longer life expectancy, and greater availability of social services. This urbanization-linked advantage offers individuals increased opportunities for cultural engagement and political participation. Additionally, urban areas typically offer convenient proximity to hospitals, clinics, and healthcare services, resulting in improved emergency care and overall health outcomes. 

Access to Information: Urban living provides easier access to sources of information, such as radio and television, which can be utilized to disseminate crucial health-related information to the general public. For example, urban women often have greater awareness of family planning methods, leading to reduced family sizes and fewer childbirths. 

Individualism: Urban environments foster individualism due to the myriad of opportunities, social diversity, and reduced familial and social control over decision-making. This setting encourages self-interest and empowers individuals to make independent choices about their careers and actions. Urban living promotes autonomy and self-determination in decision-making processes. 

Issues associated with Urbanization Urbanization presents a range of pressing issues, including: 

1. Population Pressure: Rapid rural-tourban migration leads to an overwhelming increase in urban population, straining existing public infrastructure. This surge in population contributes to challenges like slums, crime, unemployment, urban poverty, pollution, congestion, and public health problems. 

2. Proliferation of Slums: Across the country, there are approximately 13.7 million slum households, accommodating about 65.49 million people. Approximately 65% of Indian cities have adjacent slums where people live in cramped and substandard housing conditions. 

3. Housing Shortages: One of the most distressing issues associated with urbanization is inadequate housing. A significant portion of the urban population resides in poor-quality housing with limited space. In India, more than half of urban households live in single rooms, with an average of 4.4 persons per room. 

4. Unplanned Development: Urbanization often leads to unplanned development, exacerbating the socio-economic divide between the affluent and the underprivileged. The lack of proper planning perpetuates inequality within urban areas.

 5. Pandemic-Induced Problems: The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the challenges faced by the urban poor and slum dwellers. Lockdown measures severely affected their livelihoods, highlighting their vulnerability. 6. Non-Inclusive Welfare Schemes: Many welfare schemes intended for the urban poor fail to reach their target beneficiaries effectively. Inclusion and exclusion errors often result in a significant portion of slum dwellers not receiving the benefits and relief they need.

India’s Initiatives for Urbanization India has implemented several key initiatives and programs to promote urbanization and address urban development challenges. Some of the notable initiatives include:

1. Smart Cities Mission: Launched to develop 100 smart cities across the country, this initiative focuses on using technology and data-driven solutions to improve urban infrastructure, enhance quality of life, and promote sustainable urban development. 

2. AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) Mission: AMRUT is aimed at providing basic urban services such as water supply, sewage, and urban transport to ensure that every urban household has access to essential infrastructure. It seeks to improve the quality of life in urban areas. 

3. Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban: This mission is dedicated to making urban areas in India clean and open defecation-free. It emphasizes solid waste management, the construction of toilets, and the promotion of clean and hygienic practices in urban communities. 

4. HRIDAY (Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana): HRIDAY focuses on preserving and revitalizing heritage cities in India. It includes initiatives for heritage conservation, infrastructure development, and the enhancement of socio-economic and cultural aspects in these cities. 

5. Pradhan Mantri Awas YojanaUrban: This housing scheme aims to provide affordable housing for all in urban areas. It seeks to address the housing needs of economically weaker sections and promote the development of affordable housing projects.

6. Aspirational District Programme: While not exclusively an urban initiative, this program aims to transform the overall development landscape in 112 of India's most backward districts. It includes urban development components and seeks to improve various aspects of life in these districts, including urban areas.

These initiatives collectively aim to foster sustainable urbanization, improve urban infrastructure, enhance the quality of life for urban residents, and address the unique challenges posed by rapid urban growth in India.

Promoting Inclusive Urban Development:  Embracing an integrated approach to urban planning that involves all development sectors while placing a strong emphasis on inclusivity within urban development efforts. 

Utilizing Data-Driven Approaches:  Leveraging scientific data methods to assess and monitor the outcomes of both state and central schemes, ensuring that decisions are grounded in evidence. 

Empowering Citizen Engagement:  Fostering greater citizen involvement in civic matters through both physical and digital channels to ensure that urban governance reflects the needs and priorities of the people. 

Strategic Planning and Investment:  Prioritizing strategic thinking and investments, including engagement with the private sector, and fostering coordinated efforts among various agencies to effectively address the multifaceted challenges confronting cities.  

URBAN RIVER MANAGEMENT PLANS (URMPS)

Committee of National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) approves project for preparation of URMPs for 60 cities.  Project is part of River-Cities Alliance (RCA) under Namami Gange. 

RCA, started in 2021, is a joint initiative of Ministry of Jal Shakti (MoJS) & Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) with a vision to connect river cities and focus on sustainable river centric development.  Project will work in two phases. First phase would cover 25 cities from 5 main stem Ganga basin states i.e., Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. 

Main stem is the principal channel of a drainage system into which other smaller streams or rivers flow.  It will be funded by World Bank.

Need for Urban River Management:

  Ensure effective regulations of activities in the floodplain. 

 Water pollution from sources like sewage draining and grey water, erosion due to deforestation etc. 

 Lack of specific land-use category or legislation defining 'River Regulation/Riparian Zone'. 

 Religious practices such as mass bathing, idol immersion, cremation etc

Interventions by URMPs:

  Inculcating river-sensitive behaviour among citizens. 

 Develop eco-friendly riverfront projects. 

 Rejuvenate waterbodies and wetlands in the city. 

 Ensure maximum good quality return flow from the city into the river. 

 Leverage on economic potential of the river.

Local Area Plans

The Local Area Plan (LAP) is a plan, which is prepared for existing smaller area of a functional city/town and is a brown-field development. However, the Town Planning Scheme is prepared for extension/new area abutting the existing city/town and is a green-field development. The Local Area Plan (LAP) focuses on area improvements and also on making the basic services easily accessible. These plans are formulated within the proposed framework of the Development Plan, the statutory /legal plan. Through these plans deficits of infrastructure - transport infrastructure, basic services and social amenities can be identified; mobility and activities of all socio-economic groups, gender and age can be planned; proposals catering to the demand are prepared and integrated into the ward-level plans, which have allocated municipal budget. 

The LAP can also notify the conflicting land uses. These plans should be linked with the municipal budget, which would make the plans more realistic and easier to implement. Inputs from the Local Area Plan (LAP) should be used, while formulation of Development Plan or during its midterm review that will enable integration of the top-down planning and bottom-up efforts of compiling the aspirations of the local community. Barring few exceptions, bottom-up planning is not happening. The LAPs will be effective, if these are not integrated with the institutional and financing mechanism. Sequence of activities followed while preparing the Local Area Plan (LAP) for Delhi by Municipal Corporation of Delhi are shown in following Figure.

Town Planning Schemes

The Gujarat Town Planning and Urban Development Act (GTPUDA), 1976 is a robust legislation for urban planning as compared to the Acts of other States. The Act mandates a two‐step Urban planning process. Here, first step is to prepare a ―Development Plan‖ for the entire city or development area, and second step is to prepare ―Town Planning Schemes‖ (TPSs) for smaller portions of the development area. It involves three main stages:

a) In Town Planning or Plot Reconstitution Scheme the pockets of land, covering the area to be developed, are pooled and its development is financed with land-owner’s involvement, without compulsorily acquiring land. 

b) The land required for developing network of roads, utilities and services is taken by the development authority /infrastructure providing agency and the developed pockets of land redistributed to the land owners. 

c) The reconstituted plots are allotted to the owners in proportion to their land holdings. 

Thus, successful TPS integrates new areas into the developing city. The TPS are usually prepared for 100 to 200 hectares of land, with detailing of infrastructure required and cost estimations for the new development pockets. The TPS is one of the mechanisms used to assemble land and/or develop land. Other mechanisms being: Land Acquisition, Land Reservations, Transferable Development Rights, and Guided Land Development. Preparation of the TPS for land assembly and development was first included in the Maharashtra Regional and Town Planning Act, 1966. Later Gujarat Town Planning & Urban Development Act, 1976 included it as an important step next to Development Plan. 

Various Types of Parks

Contemporary parks and open-space planning focuses on creating systems that respond to local values, needs and circumstances. The region of the country, physical setting, landscape features, demographics and socioeconomic characteristics are all determining factors in the form that a community’s park and open-space system. In each system, parks and open spaces are defined under various classifications that function individually and collectively to create a cohesive and balanced system. Successful parks and open-space systems are often planned around distinguishing landscape features or local themes that exhibit the unique qualities of a community.

Common to all systems is the notion of creating a high-quality living environment through the provision of parks, open spaces and recreational amenities. With such a broad spectrum of potential applications, the classifications for parks and open space are necessarily flexible and adaptable to the unique circumstances to which they are applied. The extent to which one type of park versus another is found within a system is determined by local needs and circumstances. In a metropolitan system, emphasis on neighborhood parks, parkways and large urban parks is common in response to the urban form and distinctiveness of individual neighborhoods.

1) Neighborhood Park

Neighborhood parks are the basic unit of the park system and serve a recreational and social purpose. Development focuses on informal recreation. Programmed activities are typically limited to youth sports practices and occasionally games.

2) Community and Large Urban Parks

Community and large urban parks are considerably larger in scale and serve a broader purpose than neighborhood parks. The main difference between a community and large urban park is that the latter is often associated with urban settings with large populations. Large urban parks also tend to be larger than community parks in order to provide more park space in a denser populated urban setting. The focus of both types of parks is on meeting wide-ranging community recreation and social needs. The facilities found within these parks are entirely based on community needs. Development focuses on both active and passive recreation, with a wide array of programmed activities often being accommodated. Special-use facilities are routinely located within these parks. This type of park also encompasses unique and extensive landscape features indicative of the region.

3) Youth and Community Athletic Complexes

Youth and community athletic complexes consolidate athletic facilities to strategic locations within a community to take advantage of programming efficiencies and economies of scale. Consolidation of athletic facilities also allows for a closer association between players, parents and coaches at scheduled events. Larger and fewer sites also provide greater conveniences, such as parking, restrooms and concessions and the capacity to generate revenue to offset operational and maintenance costs. Community athletic complexes are most common and serve both youth and adult athletic programs.

Youth athletic complexes are more common in larger metropolitan areas. In most cases, athletic complexes are heavily programmed with facilities to maximize land uses and operational efficiency. The type of facilities found within these parks is entirely based on community athletic program needs. With ever-changing recreational trends, greater emphasis is being placed on designing athletic complexes to be as flexible as possible without unduly compromising specific uses.

4) Greenways

Greenways are lands set aside for preservation of natural resources, remnant landscapes, open space and visual aesthetics. Greenways also provide passive-use opportunities, most often in the form of trails and nature centers. The key focus is on protecting ecological resources and providing wildlife corridors. Greenways can take various forms. In the broadest application, greenways form a network of interconnected natural areas throughout a community. They function as part of a border less system that links together parks, natural open spaces and trail corridors into a latticework of public space.

In this context, the line between greenways, parks, trails and the built environment is purposefully fostering the “city as a park” concept. Establishing an extensive continuous greenway system requires a close collaborative relationship between the city and development community in order to set aside the land for this purpose. Greenways can also take the form of a stand-alone land parcel dedicated to open-space preservation. These are often referred to as nature preserves or nature parks and often serve the same basic function as other forms of greenways.

5) Parkways

Parkways are best characterized as linear parks that also serve as transportation corridors between public parks, historic features, monuments, institutions and business centers. They often follow a notable landscape feature such as a creek or river.

6) Special-Use Parks

The special-use classification covers a broad range of parks and recreation facilities oriented toward single purpose or specialized use.

• Nature and cultural or performing arts centers
• Historic sites: downtowns, plazas, cemeteries, historic landscapes, churches and monuments
• Recreation facilities: aquatic centers, campgrounds, ice arenas, fitness centers, community centers, skateboard parks and stadiums
• Public gathering areas: amphitheaters, community commons, town centers and urban squares

7) Park-School

The park-school classification pertains to school sites used in concert with or in lieu of, other classes of parks to meet community park and recreation needs. In most cases, these sites are best suited for youth athletic facilities for school, district and community- based recreational programs. Park-school sites also often provide the majority of indoor recreational facilities within a community. To a lesser degree, school sites can also be used to service neighborhood park needs. The limiting factor is that most of these sites are heavily programmed for active uses and school buildings. This often leaves little space to accommodate neighborhood-focused amenities and create an aesthetically appealing setting that would draw families into the site.

8) Private Park/Recreation Facility

The private park/recreation facility classification covers a broad range of nonpublic parks and recreation facilities. This includes facilities such as golf courses, fitness clubs, museums, private courtyards, amphitheaters, horse-riding stables, water parks and miniature golf courses. This classification is provided as a means to acknowledge the contribution that a given private facility has to the public parks and open-space system within a community.

9) Regional Parks

The definition of a regional park varies considerably across the country. The common distinguishing feature is that regional parks typically service multiple cities and cross political jurisdictions. In many cases, a separate regional park authority is established to manage a series of regional parks. In some areas of the country, developers of regional parks focus on setting aside larger tracts of land to preserve natural resources, remnant landscapes and open space. A key objective is protecting ecological resources and providing wildlife habitat. Passive uses, such as hiking, canoeing and nature viewing are most common forms of activities.

The primary distinction between this type of regional parks and greenways is scale and service area. Regional parks are typically at a much larger scale (in land area) than greenways. In other areas of the country, regional parks are an extension of the large urban park classification. In addition to preserving natural resources and open space, these parks also provide active recreational areas, gardens, picnic facilities and other forms of special use. In parts of the country, regional parks include major national monuments and historic landscapes.

Modern Town Planning in India

In India, the various states have passed town planning act to enforce town planning activity. The main source of all these town planning acts are the English Town Planning Act of 1909, the main provision in this act is that local authorities are given power to prepare and to enforce town planning schemes on open lands in the city and on its fringe.

For the purpose of looking after the planning and execution of new parts within metro-centres, various organizations such as DDA (Delhi Development Authority), CIDCO (City and Industrial Development Corporation), CMPO (Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organization), HUDCO (Housing and Urban Development Corporation), etc., are set up by the government.In addition to local authorities, the State Government is empowered to declare urban development areas and to set up urban development authorities for such areas. Such authorities are given the following powers.

• To prepare development plans for the urban areas.
• To prepare town planning schemes.
• To carry out surveys in the urban development area.
• To guide, direct and assist the local authority in urban development.
• To control development activities according to the plan.
• To execute work in connection with supply of water, disposal of sewage.
• To enter into contracts and agreements with local authority and organizations.

Socio – Economic Aspects of Town Planning

The town planning is desirable if its adoption leads to better utilization of the resources of the community. Hence, for any given size, the best planned town is one where the aggregate land values are at a maximum. Thus, economically, the best town plan will lead to the highest aggregate land values. While adopting the land values condition, the following factors are to be considered for assessing the economic worth of town planning.

• Change in quantity of resource
• Demand for goods and services
• Production techniques
• Redistribution of land values

The economic advantages offered by urban way of life are enormous. But at the same time, urban growth is not smooth and there are many difficulties that prevent the town from making maximum contribution to national economy. Some of the economic disadvantage can be mentioned as difficulties in securing housing accommodation, congestion of facilities, etc. In a similar way, the drawbacks from various disciplines can be enumerated as follows.

• The local government is concerned with the expansion of urban area, and its administration, etc.
• The medical officer is concerned with the effects of dirt, smoke, etc. on the health of urban dwellers.
• The psychologist is concerned with the effects of noise and strain leading to greater insanity and psychological pressure.
• The sociologist is concerned with the formation of slums, inadequate recreational facilities, increase in theft and crime, etc.

Development of different types of rural settlements

    Types of rural settlements imply the degree of dispersion or nucleation of the dwellings whereas the patterns refer to geometrical shapes formed by the arrangement of dwellings. 

    Various authors have suggested different schemes of discussing settlement types. Finch and Trewartha et al. refers to two primary types of settlements, (i) the isolated or dispersed and (ii) the nucleated. These are two extreme types of groupings, wherein isolated settlements refer to a single family residence and the nucleated settlements refer to a group of dwellings clustered almost in the centre of the village lands. 

    R.L. Singh discerns four main types: (i) compact settlements, (ii) semi-compact or hemleted cluster, (iii) semi-sprinkled or fragmented or hamleted settlements and (iv) sprinkled or dispersed type. On the basis of number of villages, hamlets and number of occupance units, R.B. Singh identified four settlements. They are (i) compact, (ii) semi-compact, (iii) hamleted and (iv) dispersed or scattered type.

(i) Compact settlements: 

If the number of villages equals the number of hamlets in an area unit, the settlement is designated as compact. Such settlements are found throughout the plateau region of Malwa, in the Narmada Valley, Nimar upland, large parts of Rajasthan, paddy lands in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Vindhyan Plateau and several other cultivated parts of India. In such villages all the dwellings are concentrated in one central site. The inhabitants of the village live together and enjoy the benefits of community life. Such settlements range from a cluster of about thirty to hundreds of dwellings of different forms, sizes and functions. Their size varies from 500 to 2,500 persons in sparsely populated parts like Rajasthan to more than 10,000 in the Ganga plain.

(ii) Semi-compact settlements: 

If the number of villages equals more than half of the hamlets, it is semi-compact settlement. These are found both in plains and plateaus depending upon the environmental conditions prevailing there. The dwellings in such settlements are not very closely knitted and are huddled together at one common site. It covers more area than the compact settlements; the hamlets occupy new sites near the periphery of the village boundary. 

(iii) Hamleted settlements: 

If the number of villages is equal to half of hamlet number, it is a hamlet settlement. The hamlets are spread over the area with intervening fields and the main or central settlement is either absent or has feeble influence upon others. Often the original site is not easily distinguishable and the morphological diversity is rarely noticed. Such settlements are found in West Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and coastal plains.

(iv) Dispersed settlements:

If the number of villages is less than half the number of hamlets, the settlement is regarded as dispersed. The inhabitants of dispersed settlements live in isolated dwellings scattered in the cultivated fields. Individualism, sentiments of living freely, custom of .marriage relations are conducive to such settlements.

However, these dwellings are deprived of neighbourhood, communal interdependence and social interaction. Dispersed settlements are found in tribal areas covering central part of India, eastern and southern Rajasthan, Himalayan slopes and land with dissected and uneven topography. Homesteads or farmsteads of wheat producing areas in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh also belong to this category.

Environment Impacts Assessment

 

Use of Technology in Urban Planning

GIS APPLICATIONS IN URBAN PLANNING

The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and monitoring of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue primarily due to the advantages mentioned below: 

 Planning of project 

 Make better decisions 

 Visual Analysis 

 Spatial analysis 

 Improve Organizational Integration

i) Planning of Project: 

The advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of a project that has a large spatial component; and, where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. Thematic maps generation is possible on one or more than one base maps. As an example: the generation of a land use map on the basis of a soil composition, vegetation, and topography. The unique combination of certain features facilitates the creation of such thematic maps. With the various modules within, GIS it is possible to calculate surface, length, width, and distance.

ii) Making Decisions: 

The adage “better information leads to better decisions” is as true for GIS as it is for other information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system, but a tool to query, analyze, and map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has been used to assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping to resolve territorial disputes, and placing pylons in such a way as to minimize visual intrusion. 

iii) Visual Analysis: 

Digital Terrain Modelling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D modelling, a particular landscape can be better visualized which leads to better understanding of certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion volume (for example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments, land levelling) and hydrological modelling becomes easier. 

Aside form the previously mentioned fields, in the social sciences GIS can prove extremely useful, too. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can be a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data, such as population distribution, market localization, and other related features.

iv) Spatial Analysis: 

The use of spatial analysis, which is a technique of GIS, helps to: 

 Identify trends on the data. 

 Create new relationships from the data. 

 View complex relationships between data sets. 

 Make better decisions

v) Improving Organizational Integration: 

Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main benefits is improved management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to link data sets together by geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and communication. By creating a shared database, one department can benefit from the work of another - data can be collected once and used many times.

As communication increases among individuals and departments, redundancy is reduced, productivity is enhanced, and overall organizational efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility company, for example, the customer and infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is planned maintenance, people can be informed by computer-generated letters.

URBAN FLOODING AND HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Urban flooding is the term used to describe the flooding of land or property within a constructed environment, especially in locations that are more densely inhabited (like cities), as a result of excessive rainfall that exceeds the capacity of drainage systems. Urban flooding, in contrast to country floods (heavy rain over flat or low-lying terrain), is a result of both increased precipitation and unplanned urbanisation (catchments).

Causes Of Urban Flooding: 

Encroachment on drainage channels; unplanned tourism; climate change; Unplanned release of water from dams; Illegal mining

Impact Of Urban Flooding: 

Loss of life and property; Negative impact on Ecosystem; Negative impact on Human and Animal Health; Negative Psychological impact.

Climate Change Impact On Costal India Cities: 

Cropland turning unfit for production; Rise in sea level; Species Extinction; Chronic water scarcity; Increase in incidences of extreme events; Loss of biodiversity; Urban Heat Island.

Climate Smart Cities Assessment And Its Impact: 

 To inculcate a Climate-Sensitive Approach to Urban Planning and Development, the Climate Smart Cities Assessment framework, for 100 smart cities, was launched by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. 

 The framework has 28 diverse indicators, across 5 categories namely (i) Energy and Green Buildings, (ii) Urban Planning, Green Cover & Biodiversity, (iii) Mobility and Air Quality, (iv) Water Management and (v) Waste Management.

Sustainable Cities India Program: 

 The National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) and the World Economic Forum have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to work together on a jointly developed "Sustainable Cities India programme." 

 It aims to create an enabling environment for cities to generate decarbonization solutions across the energy, transport and built environment sectors.