Urban Heat Island Effect

 

Planned development in Urban Areas

As per 12th Schedule of the Constitution of India, urban planning is the function of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)/ Urban Development Authorities.Government of India supplements the efforts of the States through schematic interventions/ advisories. Itprovides financial and technical support to the States.

Considering the fast pace of urbanization, the Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs (MoHUA), Government of India has taken several initiatives towards planned development in urban areas including the following:

• Urban and Regional Development Plan Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) Guidelines, 2014
• Model Building Bye-laws (MBBL) – 2016

The Ministry, through schematic interventions facilitates increasing land-use efficiency, promoting sustainability, affordability, and revenue generation through land as a planning tool. The MoHUA has announced the following schemes:

Under AMRUT: Sub-Scheme on “Formulation of GIS based Master Plan for 500 AMRUT Cities” was launched to support States for preparation of master plans in AMRUT towns. Final GIS database has been created for 443 towns, draft GIS based Master Plan prepared for 330 towns and final GIS based Master Plans has been notified for 180 towns.

Under AMRUT 2.0, Scheme for Formulation of GIS based Master Plans of Class-II Towns with population of 50,000 - 99,999 has been launched by MoHUA to support States financially and technically for undertaking planning initiatives in smaller cities. It has been approved for 675 towns with total outlay of Rs. 631Cr and is in initial stage of implementation.

Local Area Plan and Town Planning Scheme (LAP/TPS): 

Pilot Sub-Scheme for preparation of Town Planning Scheme (TPS) and Local Area Plans was launched in 2018. The Scheme has been conceived to bring planned urban development by mobilizing urban land in the city center and in the urban peripheries by adjustment of land parcels. It covers 25 cities in the first phase of Smart City Mission with allocation of around 50 crores.

In order to incentivize States to undertake urban planning reforms, following schemes were launched by MoHUA under the Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment ofDepartment of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance:

Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment 2022-23 – Part – VI (Urban Planning Reforms) with an allocation of Rs. 6000 Cr - The reform components include Modernization of Building Bylaws, Adoption of Transferrable Development Rights (TDR), Implementation of Local Area Plans (LAP) and Town Planning Schemes (TPS), Implementation of Transit-oriented Development (ToD), Creation of Sponge Cities, Removing Taxation for running the Buses for Public Transport. Funds amounting to Rs. 4093.16 Cr were released by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of finance to 12 States.

Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment 2023-24 – Part – III (Urban Planning Reforms) with an allocation of Rs. 15000 Cr - The reform components include Augmentation of human resources for strengthening urban planning ecosystem, Implementation of Town Planning Scheme (TPS)/ Land Pooling Scheme, Modernization of Building Bylaws, Promoting in-situ slum rehabilitation, Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), Transferable Development Rights as planning tool, Strengthening natural ecosystems of urban areas through urban planning.

Use of Technology in Urban Planning

GIS APPLICATIONS IN URBAN PLANNING

The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and monitoring of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue primarily due to the advantages mentioned below: 

 Planning of project 

 Make better decisions 

 Visual Analysis 

 Spatial analysis 

 Improve Organizational Integration

i) Planning of Project: 

The advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of a project that has a large spatial component; and, where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. Thematic maps generation is possible on one or more than one base maps. As an example: the generation of a land use map on the basis of a soil composition, vegetation, and topography. The unique combination of certain features facilitates the creation of such thematic maps. With the various modules within, GIS it is possible to calculate surface, length, width, and distance.

ii) Making Decisions: 

The adage “better information leads to better decisions” is as true for GIS as it is for other information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system, but a tool to query, analyze, and map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has been used to assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping to resolve territorial disputes, and placing pylons in such a way as to minimize visual intrusion. 

iii) Visual Analysis: 

Digital Terrain Modelling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D modelling, a particular landscape can be better visualized which leads to better understanding of certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion volume (for example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments, land levelling) and hydrological modelling becomes easier. 

Aside form the previously mentioned fields, in the social sciences GIS can prove extremely useful, too. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can be a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data, such as population distribution, market localization, and other related features.

iv) Spatial Analysis: 

The use of spatial analysis, which is a technique of GIS, helps to: 

 Identify trends on the data. 

 Create new relationships from the data. 

 View complex relationships between data sets. 

 Make better decisions

v) Improving Organizational Integration: 

Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main benefits is improved management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to link data sets together by geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and communication. By creating a shared database, one department can benefit from the work of another - data can be collected once and used many times.

As communication increases among individuals and departments, redundancy is reduced, productivity is enhanced, and overall organizational efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility company, for example, the customer and infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is planned maintenance, people can be informed by computer-generated letters.

National Urban planning Conclave Creating Sustainable Cities

Perspective: Urban Planning

Urban Planning

> Urban planning is the process of designing and managing the physical and social development of cities, towns, and other urban areas.

• > It involves a range of activities, including land use planning, transportation planning, environmental planning, and community development.
• > Urban planners work to create livable and sustainable communities by balancing the needs of different stakeholders, including residents, businesses, and government agencies.
• 
  

Urban planning in India: A quick recap The first Municipal Corporation was set up in the former Presidency Town of Madras in 1688. It was followed by similar corporations in the then Bombay and Calcutta in 1726. Lord Mayo’s resolution of 1870 laid out a roadmap for these bodies in India. The ‘Magna Carta’ of local self-government is considered to be Lord Ripon’s resolution of 1882. In 1907, a royal commission, chaired by Hobhouse, was established to focus on decentralization. The Government of India Act of 1919 assigned the subject of local self-government to an Indian minister. The Cantonments Act was passed by the central legislature in 1924. Local self-government was declared a provincial subject under the Government of India Act of 1935.

Features of Urban Planning:

• Land use planning: This involves the allocation of land for various uses, such as residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational.
• Transportation planning: Planning for efficient and sustainable transportation systems, including roads, public transit, bike lanes, and pedestrian walkways.
• Housing planning: Ensuring the availability of adequate and affordable housing for all residents.
• Economic planning: Supporting economic development and growth by creating jobs, attracting investment, and providing business opportunities.
• Infrastructure planning: Developing and maintaining infrastructure, such as water supply, sanitation, and waste management systems.
• Community engagement: Involving the community in the planning process to ensure that their needs and priorities are reflected in the final plan.
• Zoning: Regulating the use of land and the placement of buildings to ensure compatibility with neighboring uses and adequate provision of open space.
• Urban design: Creating an attractive and functional built environment through thoughtful design of public spaces, buildings, and streetscapes.
• Environmental planning: Incorporating environmental considerations, such as the preservation of natural resources, reducing pollution, and promoting sustainable practices.

Urban Planning Mechanism in India:

India’s local governance system underwent a transformation in 1992 with constitutional reforms through the 73rd and 74th Amendments.

• 12th schedule: Urban planning, regulation of land use, and planning for economic and social development are the first three subjects listed in the 12th schedule.
• 74th Amendment: It empowers elected municipalities with the task of preparing and implementing plans and schemes for economic development and social justice, along with subjects listed under the 12th Schedule.
• Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC): The 74th Amendment mandates the creation of a MPC for metropolitan cities with over 1 million population, with at least two-thirds of its members to be elected local representatives, to prepare a development plan for the metropolitan area incorporating local bodies’ plans.
• Creation of master plans: These agencies prepare “master plans” that regulate land use and development across the city every 10-20 years, such as the Delhi Development Authority or the Bangalore Development Authority.
• District Development Authorities: State government-controlled DAs are primarily responsible for urban planning in most of India’s major cities, instead of municipal government or MPC.

Why is it a daunting task in India:

• Rapid urbanization: India has been witnessing rapid urbanization, with a significant population shift from rural areas to cities. This has led to unplanned and haphazard urbanization, resulting in inadequate infrastructure, lack of affordable housing, and overcrowding in cities.
• Cost of urban planning: The cost of urban planning can be substantial, especially if the plan involves the construction of new infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, public transport systems, and housing. The cost can also vary depending on the level of development, infrastructure, and services required in the city.
• Poor infrastructure: Many Indian cities lack proper infrastructure such as roads, public transport, water supply, and sewage systems. This leads to traffic congestion, pollution, and health hazards.
• Lack of open spaces: Many urban areas in India lack open spaces such as parks, playgrounds, and public spaces. This can impact the physical and mental well-being of residents, especially children and the elderly.
• Inadequate housing: The demand for affordable housing in Indian cities far exceeds the supply. This has led to the proliferation of slums and informal settlements, where living conditions are often substandard.
• Corruption: Corruption in urban planning is a significant issue in India. It leads to the allocation of resources based on political and personal considerations rather than objective criteria, resulting in inefficient use of resources and poor urban planning outcomes.
• Lack of citizen participation: Citizens’ participation in urban planning is minimal in India. Most planning decisions are made by bureaucrats and politicians, with little input from citizens. This can lead to decisions that do not reflect the needs and aspirations of the people.

Major challenges plaguing Urban Centres:

• Lack of Efficient Transport: Overcrowded roads, pollution, and increased travelling time due to the dependency on private vehicles in cities, which also contributes to climate change.
• Slums and Squatter Settlements: High cost of living in cities leads to the growth of slums as safe havens for migrants, with 35.2% of the total urban population living in slums in India, and Dharavi in Mumbai being the largest slum in Asia.
• Degradation of Environmental Quality: Congestion of people in limited spaces results in reduced air quality, contaminated water, destruction of forests and agricultural land for construction, and wastes being channelized to rivers, leading to garbage mountains outside cities.
• Sewerage Problems: Inefficient sewage facilities due to unplanned and haphazard growth of cities, with almost 78% of the sewage generated in India remaining untreated and disposed of in rivers, lakes, or sea.
• Urban Heat Island: Dense concentrations of pavement, buildings, and other surfaces in urban areas lead to increased energy costs, air pollution, and heat-related illness and mortality.
• Urban Flooding: Encroachment on lakes, wetlands, and rivers due to new developments in low-lying areas, ineffective natural drainage systems, and lack of solid waste management leading to flooding and waterlogging.
• Ineffective Functioning of ULBs: Imbalance between the powers, responsibilities, and funds assigned to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) outlined by the Constitution, resulting in their ineffective functioning due to the lack of time-bound audits and revenue dependence on the Centre and State.

Major schemes for urban planning and development:

The GOI has launched several schemes related to urban planning to address the issues faced by Indian cities. Some of the major schemes are:

• Smart Cities Mission: Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to develop 100 smart cities across India by leveraging technology and infrastructure. The mission focuses on sustainable development, citizen participation, and the use of technology to improve urban services.
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to improve basic urban infrastructure such as water supply, sewage, and transportation in cities with a population of over 100,000. The scheme focuses on improving the quality of life of citizens.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Launched in 2014, this scheme aims to achieve a clean India by promoting sanitation and hygiene. The scheme focuses on improving waste management, constructing toilets, and promoting behavioural change.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to provide affordable housing to urban poor and homeless. The scheme provides financial assistance to construct houses and promotes the use of eco-friendly and sustainable building materials.
• Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to preserve and revitalize the heritage cities in India. The scheme focuses on improving tourism infrastructure, promoting heritage tourism, and preserving cultural heritage.

Way forward:

To move forward with urban planning in a sustainable and cost-effective manner, the following steps can be taken:

• Adopt a participatory approach: Citizens’ participation is essential for effective urban planning. Cities should involve citizens, community groups, and stakeholders in the planning process, from the early stages to implementation and evaluation.
• Prioritize sustainable development: Urban planning should prioritize sustainability, including reducing carbon emissions, improving public transportation, promoting renewable energy, and preserving natural resources.
• Promote public-private partnerships: Public-private partnerships can provide resources and expertise to urban planning projects. They can also help to mobilize private investment in infrastructure and services.
• Use technology to improve planning and implementation: Urban planners can use technology to improve the accuracy and speed of planning and implementation. For example, geographic information systems (GIS) can help with mapping, data analysis, and visualization.
• Address corruption: Corruption in urban planning can lead to inefficient use of resources and poor outcomes. Cities should prioritize transparency and accountability in planning processes to reduce corruption.
• Prioritize housing: Affordable housing is essential for the well-being of citizens. Cities should prioritize the provision of affordable housing, and this can be achieved through innovative financing models, such as social housing and rent control.
• Emphasize the importance of green spaces: Green spaces such as parks, public spaces, and playgrounds are essential for the physical and mental well-being of citizens. Cities should prioritize the preservation and creation of green spaces.

Conclusion:

• By adopting these steps, urban planning can be carried out in a sustainable, cost-effective, and citizen-centric manner.
• This will help address the challenges faced by cities and create livable, vibrant, and sustainable urban environments for citizens.

Pathways to Amrit kaal - Envisioning and Realising a New Future for Indian Cities

Urban Planning, Green Cover and Biodiversity

Urban areas in India are expected to house more than 40% of the country’s total population, and will contribute to over 75% of the national GDP by 2030 (Source: MoHUA, SCM). However, as the cities expand, the energy demand is expected to increase dramatcally, resulting in high GHG emissions and thereby contributing to the climate change. Since much of India’s future development is centred around cities and urban areas, consistent with the objectives of the Paris Agreement, cities urgently need to plan and implement climate actions in an integrated and inclusive way. This would include mitigation of GHG emissions and adaptation to climate change impacts to foster comprehensive social, cultural, economic, and environmental benefits.

The cost of poor planning of Indian cities is estimated between 1.2% and 6.3% of the GDP by 2050 (Mani, Bandyopadhyay, Chonabayashi, Markandya & Mosier, 2018). Therefore, there is an urgent need for urban planning reforms that can facilitate integrated urban and regional planning approaches to climate-sensitive development, with active public participation in a time bound manner. At the same time, adoption and enforcement of existing mechanisms and guidelines, such as the revised URDPFI guidelines 2014 on preservation and rejuvenation of water bodies, green and eco-sensitive areas, need to be strengthened by the Urban Development Authorities (UDAs) and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).

As of July 2019, out of the 7,933 cities and towns, 2,843 have statutory Master Plans. The disaggregation of Master Plans in the form of Zonal Development Plans/ Local Area Plans /Layout Plans are rarely available for most cities and towns, leading to haphazard and unplanned growth. Moreover, a review of existing plans suggests that many towns and cities that have Master Plans or Development Plans, which do not match with the growing infrastructural requirements and emerging challenges arising out of climate change, environmental and infrastructure requirements. Besides, lack of data to enable risk-informed planning, fund scarcity, and lack of qualified human resources (urban/town planners) pose serious challenges in formulation, implementation, and monitoring of climate actions at the city level. Spatial and temporal data loss and damage due to disasters remain a gap. In addition, timely implementation and monitoring of various spatial plans and provision for revision, need to be enabled with the use of the latest technological tools, such as Geographical Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing techniques. 

Urban environment consists of many aspects, including waterbodies, open spaces, and built-up areas. The waterbodies and open spaces help people adapt better to the adverse impacts of extreme climate events besides combating the urban heat island effect. These also combat water crisis, acting as reservoirs for draining, retention for groundwater recharge, for protection in case of floods, and for maintaining biodiversity. Further, local sources of freshwater decrease the dependence on energy for pumping purposes.

Similarly, sufficiently large and protected green spaces reduce the impact of human activities on climate, while biodiversity helps in carbon sequestration, air and water purification, mitigation of impacts of environmental pollution, noise reduction, and microclimate regulation. The effects of climate change and disasters (natural and man-made) are faced by urban inhabitants, and impact urban infrastructure. As effects of climate variability leading to extreme events are becoming more severe and frequent, the incidents of damage to urban infrastructure are also increasing. Therefore, all cities should be able to identify their potential hazards, vulnerabilities, and risk as well as be prepared for a prompt response mechanism to combat any disaster situations, including robust plans for recovery, reconstruction, and rehabilitation to ‘build back better’.

Urban Planning Principles

Urban Development of a country / state / district / region primarily depends on how effectively the urban settlements, that is, town, city, metro or mega city have been planned and managed. Urban planning and management come within the broad ambit of urban governance. So technically it can be stated that growth of urban sector of a country, which contributes maximum percentage of GDP, depends on good governance of its urban areas. In this regard, good governance has 8 criteria, but its basic premise is to plan and manage the urban areas well. Hence the Planning of settlements - urban or rural occupying land/space is equally important as is economic planning. 

The principles of urban planning encompass knowledge of various fields like geography, economics, sociology, engineering and architecture. The guiding principles of urban planning starts with forecasting the population for whom the plan is to be prepared followed by the major 7 aspects to be suitably planned and provided: 

i) Housing 

ii) Public and Semi-Public Offices 

iii) Commercial facilities 

iv) Recreation Centers

v) Roads and Transportation 

vi) Green Belt / Green Cover 

vii) Zoning. 

Statutory and non-statutory plans prepared as part of the Urban Planning give due cognisance to applicable principles of planning. Yet, due to various interest groups, we commonly observe significant variation in the principles and real life situation. 

The main aim of Urban Planning is to provide good quality of life to the occupants of urban settlements. This aim can be achieved by formulating the objectives and adopting strategies to provide or maintain the major following four aspects that are essential for urban dwellers/people. 

i) Convenience/Comfort: This includes provision of physical infrastructure such as electricity, adequate water supply, transport facilities, easy disposal of sewage and waste. The recreational amenities comprising of open spaces, parks, town halls, playgrounds, malls, stadiums, auditorium etc. are also essential for comfort of people. 

ii) Aesthetics: This can be understood by natural elements within and surrounding the urban settlement and also by giving architectural finishes to its various components. It not only includes natural elements but also architectural control on public as well as semi-public buildings, ancient architectural buildings, temples, churches, buildings of cultural and historical significance. 

iii) Environment: This can be understood with the approach that activities of man should not have negative impact on both the built and natural environment. In the current context, it also includes impact on climate change. 

iv) Good Health: The objective of health is accommodated in urban planning by making right use of land for right purpose by providing social infrastructure, parks and playgrounds for the public, by maintaining the pollution of various forms to the lowest possible degree etc. 

Infrastructure in Urban Planning Framework

Urban planning is considered as one of the important tools for managing urban growth as well as for the provision of a framework for public goods and services, according to the spatial planning hierarchies and scales. Infrastructure services, thus, form a very important component of urban planning and city development strategies, ensuring a better quality of life for their citizens.

In India, however, the process of urban planning itself has been evolving and lacks a serious clarity of purpose and ground-level implementation. It is estimated that around 100 Indian towns and cities have updated forms of urban planning directing their urban growths. Also, the subject of urban planning, being a “state subject”, the content and approach vary significantly from state to state.

Although a national guideline of Urban and Regional Development and Plan Formulation (URDPFI) guidelines of 2014 exists at the national level, however, the guideline is rarely followed or understood well by the state-level implementation agencies. A typical statutory urban plan, thus a long-term proposal for urban land use and development control regulations.

The majority of these planning proposals are long term land use control proposals, based on “predict and provide” type philosophies. These plans generally lack sound infrastructure proposals as well as a good road map towards resource mobilisation. As a result, the majority of these planning proposals remain under-realised on the ground.

In the early 2000s, the strategic planning tools like City Development Strategies (CDS), followed by City Development Plans (CDPs) and Slum Free City Plans, during the National Urban Renewal Mission and later, Smart City Plans (SCPs), HRIDAY City Heritage Plans (CHPs), City Mobility Plans (CMP), among others, gained substantial popularity due to their clear focus on infrastructure and linkages with the national level funding.

The National Urban Renewal mission also popularized the notion of “Detailed Project Reports or DPRs” for funding of infrastructure proposals. Such funding opportunity being available at the national level, the significance of a city-level spatial planning or city master plans got further diluted and DPRs became more attractive for the city administration.

As a part of its reform agenda, the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) has introduced the preparation of GISbased Master Planning and a subscheme on Local Area Planning (LAP) and Town Planning schemes (TPS). The sub-scheme on LAP and TPS is a step in the right direction towards the creation of much needed spatial planning hierarchy in the urban context.

However, the present approach of GIS-based Master Plan preparation focuses mainly on the mapping of urban geographic features and lack its focus on planning aspects of infrastructure, urban poverty, and city economy. In some states, GIS-based Master Planning is viewed as a parallel planning process, but again not harmonised with the state-specific statutory planning process.

The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11.3 states, “By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanisation and capacity for participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries”. Being at the forefront of the urbanisation trends, India remains a key actor in the global sustainability agenda.

Integrating Energy Use, Transport and Urban Planning

While infrastructure development is the key component to building livable and sustainable cities, energy is the fuel to keep the city running. From telecommunication systems, freight railroads, hospitals, schools, transportation, water and sewage network, buildings and parks, energy is a fundamental pillar of any economy. Electricity is the most commonly used form of energy in residential, commercial and industrial sectors. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has called electricity “crucial to human development” and “one of the clearest and undistorted indications of a country’s energy poverty status.” Experience from the recent pandemic further demonstrates the importance of electricity to all economic activity, prosperity, livelihoods and human well-being. 

Further, there is a desire and ambition to transition to “Net Zero” as articulated by the Government and private sector. Net-zero refers to a state in which the amount of carbon emitted by a country into the atmosphere is offset by absorbing an equivalent amount of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. At the 26th Conference of Parties (COP26), India committed to a net-zero carbon emissions target by 2070. Given that India will continue to urbanize rapidly, it is possible for the Indian cities to adopt sustainability targets including the “Net Zero” goal well ahead of the national target by 2070. Achieving “Net Zero” by 2070 will require cities to take lead and adopt ambitious targets.

India has transitioned from an electricity deficient economy to a one with significant surplus and exports. However, the transition to Net Zero will require significant investments and institutional capacity to deploy clean energy projects, and strengthen the electricity grid. Downstream investments in the distribution systems will be crucial even though the grid has expanded to connect most households. The recent supply-side constraints due to fuel-related challenges, however, highlight the need for further reforms in the sector.

The increase in electricity coverage has however not been accompanied by improvement in the quality of power supply. India ranks 80 out of 137 countries on the quality of electricity supply (World Economic Forum, 2018). High losses and tariff below costs mean that distribution companies (Discoms) are unable to invest in network upgrades and maintenance. Achieving sustainable urbanization will require high-quality electricity as cities expand vertically, 24x7 operations become the norm and the digitalization levels expand with 5G networks. These trends will further accelerate with wider adoption of the Internet of Things (IoT), digital security systems and integrated utility management platforms (on the Integrated Resource Management principle).

Cities thrive on movement - it enables interactions, trade, and livelihoods. Transport is thus a key enabler for the cities. Traditional urban planning in India often ignored this critical dimension, though transport started to feature prominently in the urban discussions over the last two decades. Despite several interventions, the implementation of reforms has been challenging, resulting in a significant gap in the provision of safe and sustainable public transport. Advancements in the electric drive train and battery storage in the last few years mean that electric vehicles are increasingly available and economical, especially for public transport. 

The recent tender floated by Convergence Energy Services Ltd (CESL) for 5,450 electric buses, discovered very competitive prices, close to the operational cost of diesel buses. Therefore, the interlinkages between transport and electricity are expected to increase. The imminent electrification of the transport sector and centrality of electricity in the urban development and sustainability means that the integration of energy in policies and planning for cities is an unrealized opportunity. 

Indian cities have till now not placed due emphasis on sustainability. Further, fractured mandates across multiple agencies, lack of coordination across departments and a short-term “bandage approach” to infrastructure development have led to suboptimal outcomes. This approach has undermined sustainability, and compromised resilience and the quality of life. Limited budgets and the lack of financial autonomy at the municipal level have also been a barrier to high-quality infrastructure development and adequate focus on sustainability.

Urban Planning

Urban planning, also referred to as town planning, city planning, regional planning, or rural planning, is a technical and political process that focuses on the design and development of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and infrastructure that enters and exits urban areas, such as transportation, communications, and distribution networks, as well as the accessibility of these networks. Traditionally, urban planning followed a top-down approach in planning human settlements. The public's welfare was the main priority, and this included taking into account issues like effectiveness, hygienic conditions, environmental preservation and utilisation, as well as how the master plans would affect social and commercial endeavours.

Urban planning now prioritizes the social and environmental bottom lines, emphasizing the use of planning as a tool to enhance people's health and well-being while upholding sustainability norms.

Why India Needs Urban Planning:

* In India, the rate of urbanisation is quickly rising. The urban population was over 30% in 2011 and is projected to increase to 41% by 2030. 

* Urbanization has aided in social, political, and economic advancement, but it has also brought up significant socioeconomic issues. The main causes of this situation are the huge expansion of the metropolitan population, the unplanned and uncontrolled growth of urban areas, and a severe shortage of infrastructure. 

* Public services like housing, sanitation, transportation, water, energy, health, and education have been under a lot of pressure as a result of the rapid growth of the urban population, both naturally and through migration. Beggary, thievery, dacoities, burglaries, underemployment, poverty, and other social ills are common among rural immigrants. Metropolises have shown signs of bad planning, as evidenced by the severe pollution issue in Delhi, the Mumbai and Chennai floods, and so on.

Challenges with urban planning :

* Our urban planning machinery has not grown at the pace of the demands posed by urbanization and global technological advancements. 

* Urban local bodies face a massive shortage of skilled and trained human resources as well as financial challenges.

* Furthermore, poor quality of planning is a huge limiting factor to realising the true economic potential of urbanization. 

* Urban planning, which is the foundation for the integrated development of cities, citizens, and the environment, has not received adequate attention. 

* 65% of the 7933 urban settlements do not have any master plan. This leads to piecemeal interventions, haphazard constructions, urban sprawl, and environmental pollution, which can further aggravate issues such as traffic congestion, flooding, etc. 

* In many cities, development control regulations were formulated several decades ago and have been updated arbitrarily without sufficient empirical evidence of their impacts. 

* An inadequate number of urban planners in the State planning machinery and a lack of multi-disciplinary teams are serious issues.

Urban Planning

Urban planning is considered to be an important arm of urban development. Planning is an important aspect of development. Generally speaking, a plan is a scheme, a design or a framework of programmes of action, strategies and activities.

> Urban planning is the study of the built environment of a city, town, or other urban areas and is closely related to environmental studies, conservation, and land use planning. 

> Urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with the control of the use of land and design of urban environment, including transportation, networks, to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities.

> Urban planning is a complex and dynamic process to synthesize the diverse activities, perspectives, aspirations and resources into a composite whole. 

> Urban planning is one of the important public policies that government regulates. It involves the spatial resources, instructs the development of a city and the countryside and construction. It is concerned with maintaining social justice, safeguards public security, and public benefits.

Need and Importance of Urban Planning:

It is believed that planning in general makes economic and social development easier by providing scope for explicit collection, analysis and interpretation of data and developing alternative policies that can systematically resolve competing demands and conflicts. As urban development is an emerging area and new areas are added to urban areas gradually, therefore urban planning is a key to urban development. It helps to accomplish the task as how to meet the needs of residents for food, fiber, and other natural resources. It also anticipates the need for places of residence, recreation, industry, trade, service, and other uses of land. It facilitates the provision of a system of transportation, sewage disposal, water supply, recreation, education, health, etc. 

Urban planning enables a government to optimally utilize land and to create a smart and compact city, together with a new paradigm of land use and flexibility. It helps to ensure that the various establishments in urban areas are situated in appropriate localities. This avoids overcrowding and lessens congestion in a transportation system and other public facilities.

Urban planning enables a planner to judiciously utilize the scarce financial resources in various activities of urban development such as poverty eradication, employment generation, water conservation, energy, transportation, environment and population control, etc.

Urban planning helps to integrate the sect oral approach to planning. In urban development, different experts are engaged in different sectors such as housing, sewage, transport, land management, etc. In general, all these professionals are competent not only to manage their own sector but also to establish co-ordination with the other sectors. Good inter and intra sect oral management is sine-quanon for urban development. This is possible only with the help of systematic urban planning.  

Components of Urban Planning:

Urban Planning in India

The origins of urban planning in India can be traced to the planned towns of Mohenjodaro and Harappa belonging to the Indus Valley Civilisation as early as 2500 BC(Ramachandran 1989). Cities and towns werealso built around forts and centres of trade and commerceat various periods in the history of India. More broadly, over the longer historical span, scholars argue that India witnessed very little in situ urbanisation. Historically, urban centres have grown up due to concerted investment in certain areas by state governments or through administrative mechanisms such as transplanting district and sub-district (tehsil) headquarters and municipal apparatus (Bhagat2005).Pre-colonial rulers built up prominent towns and cities mainly for political and strategic reasons. One can find many such cities that were built during medieval times. FatehpurSikri andSikandra, in Uttar Pradesh, Murshidabad in West Bengal, Sindhudurg in Maharashtra, Chittorgarh, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Mewar and Udaipur in Rajasthan,Ahmedabad in Gujrat, Hyderabad in Andhra Pradeshand Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh are some of the prominent towns and cities developed during medieval times under various rulers and dynasties.

City Development in Ancient and Medieval India:

 Scholars such as Ramachandran (1989: 24) divide urbanisation and city development in pre-colonial India into three time periods: 

· The pre-historic (2350 to 1800 BC) 

· Early historical period (600 BC to 500 AD) 

· Medieval period (600 AD to 1800 AD) 

Cities of the Indus Valley civilisation, such as Harappa, Mohenjodaroand Lothal followed a system of town planning with similarities in their layouts on a rectilinear basis of main east-west routes directed to the citadels and north-south cross routes (Morris 1979). These cities were also the earliest instances of gridiron town planning. The city proper consisted of two components– a citadel, built on high ground and a lower city where the majority of the population lived (Ramachandran 1989: 30). The citadel consisted of a large number of structures with large halls and palaces and was fortified with walls. The lower city was built on a gridiron pattern with a hierarchy of streetslarge, small and smallest. An elaborate drainage system, storm water drainage system, water supply in brick lined wells, houses of different sizes and sites like the granary and public bath were some of the prominent features of the cities under the Indus Valley Civilisation. 

The earliest city developments in the second phase of urbanisation around 600 BC took place in and around the Indus valley and adjoining parts of Rajasthan, Punjab and parts of western Uttar Pradesh and also in the Deccan and southern parts of India. These cities were Nalanda, Taxashila, Vijayanagar, Pataliputra, Kancheepuram, Madurai, Varanasi and Delhi.It was during this period that towns like Varanasi and Pataliputra in the North 4 and Kancheepuram and Madurai in South gained prominence and became the centres of India’s earliest urban history (Ramachandran 1989). The use of iron helped clear forests and facilitated human settlements, triggering the emergence of these cities. During the Mauryan period,a complex town planning pattern developed and the janapadas (politicoadministrative units ruled by local kings) and later mahajanapadas (larger kingdoms) came into being. Texts like Kautilya’sArthashastra and the travelogues of Fa Hsien and Megasthenesalso suggest that cities also increased in size and number (Ramachandran 1989). Taxashila, Mathura, Kausambi, Pataliputra and Sravasthi were important cities of the Mauryan period. The decline of these cities in the post-Mauryan period could be attributed to factors like recurrence of natural calamities, the decline of well-administered empires and foreign invasions. The major cities in South during this period were Puhar (the port of the Chola kings), Madurai, Kanchi, Karur and Korkai(Ramachandra 1989). 

Around the fifth century AD, during the rules of the Gupta kings,there was a revival.Again there were revivals at the time of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. Delhi became the capital city of the slave dynasty and later the Khiljis, Tughlaqs and Lodhis. Two leading cities from around this time were Delhi and Agra. Others like Mathura, Allahabad, Varanasi, Thaneshwar, Gwalior, Ujjain, Somnath, Meerut, Panipat, Baroda and Srinagar also developed. During the Mughal period (1526-1800 AD) the growth of capital cities, building of forts, large residences and buildings, palaces and mosques became essential features of cities like Agra, Delhi, Sikandra, Shahjahanabad in the north and Hyderabad and Ahmedabad furtherSouth. For instance,Shahjahanabad was a planned city with a central avenue leading to the main gate of the Red Fort. Chandni Chowk housed the market; on one side of the avenue was the Jama Masjid and on the other the residence of the nobles. Commoners usually lived outside the fort area in mohallas with narrow streets

Urban Planning under British Rule in India: 

During the colonial era, up to the early 20th century, cities were consciously laid out for 5 military and political dominance.The concerns of public health and sanitation, spatial and social segregation, colonial dominance, and control were the underlying ideas of colonial planning in India. The establishment of town planning institutions and a knowledge edifice complete with the establishment of civil works departments and engineering colleges and the use of statistics, census and surveys institutionalised the planning process in colonial India. The underlying philosophy that cities are important centres of economic productivity informed the colonial urban planning process