What is a City

 A city is a human settlement of a substantial size. The term "city" has different meanings around the world and in some places the settlement can be very small. Even where the term is limited to larger settlements, there is no universally agreed definition of the lower boundary for their size. In a narrower sense, a city can be defined as a permanent and densely populated place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks. Cities generally have extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, production of goods, and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organizations, and businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving the efficiency of goods and service distribution.

The city, one of the world’s biggest phenomenon of the 21st century has evolved greatly over the centuries, particularly in terms of its size, form, structure and composition, while largely maintaining its importance in local and regional development. In just 65 years, the world has experienced a population shift from rural to urban, as witnessed by an increase in the global population living in urban areas from 29.6% in 1950 to 54% in 2015.

Urban Development Shield – Urban Challenge Fund

Under the new scheme announced by the Centre for the development of facilities in cities and towns, at least 50% of the cost of projects will have to be raised from the market. These funds can be raised through the issuance of municipal bonds, bank loans, and PPP mode. The remaining share will be provided by state governments and urban local bodies. According to the 2025 estimates, the scheme will be applicable to all cities with a population of 10 lakhs and above, state capitals, major industrial cities with a population of more than one lakh, and all urban local bodies in hilly/northeastern states. In total, all cities will be covered.

@ Projects will be selected in a transparent and challenge-based manner. Proposals that have a greater impact on the life of the city and have priority in reforms will be given priority.

@ Private participation will be encouraged by setting risk-sharing rules and benchmarks for civil services provided to the people.

Loan repayment guarantee for small cities:

The Centre will guarantee the repayment of loans taken by small cities in the Northeast and hilly regions and other states with a population of less than one lakh to enable them to raise financial resources from the markets. For this, a special fund of Rs. 5,000 crore is being set up. The Central Government will provide a guarantee for the first loan taken by small cities up to Rs. 7 crore, or up to 70% of the loan taken (whichever is less). If the first loan taken is repaid, a guarantee will be provided for subsequent loans up to Rs. 7 crore, or up to 50% of the loan amount. The Centre said that this will enable small cities to raise financial resources from the market to undertake projects up to Rs. 20 crore for the first time and up to Rs. 28 crore for the second time. This will be useful in increasing the lending capacity of 4,223 cities across the country, including tier-II and tier-III cities.

What should be done:

@ Repair and upgrade the legacy infrastructure in cities to meet current needs.
@ Establishment of transit corridors, urban mobility centers, economic corridors
@ Restoration/revitalization of major commercial areas/important heritage centers
@ Redevelopment of brownfield areas to meet current needs
@ Development of greenfield/semi-greenfield and major infrastructure to transform the city into a growth hub
@ Modernization of sewage and rainwater harvesting systems. Construction of water bridges.
@ Priority for solid and liquid waste management. Removal of hilly dumping yards. Integration of waste treatment can be done. 

What reforms should be brought in:

Local bodies should undertake several reforms to get assistance under the Urban Challenge Fund. The main reforms to be implemented include market and financial reforms to enhance governance, digitalization, and debt repayment capacity. The efficiency of public services and consumer services should be increased. Reforms should be undertaken in urban planning, housing, and job creation. Green infrastructure should be provided.

@ Projects undertaken with these funds will have to determine 'key performance indicators' and complete them within a specific time frame. Whether they have been completed within the specified time frame according to specific standards or not will be checked by a third party.
@  The central government has stated that there is a possibility of large amounts of private investment under the scheme, thereby strengthening urban governance. It is believed that this will enable cities to be adapted to future needs in line with national development priorities.

INDIA IS FAR MORE URBAN IN ECONOMIC AND FUNCTIONAL TERMS THAN OFFICIAL DEFINITIONS SUGGEST: ECONOMIC SURVEY 2025-26

 “India’s cities are not merely places of residence but function as critical economic infrastructure. Density and proximity generate agglomeration economies that raise productivity, deepen labour markets, and enable innovation. The economic role of cities is therefore central to India’s growth trajectory,” said the Economic Survey 2025-26 tabled in Parliament today by Union Minister for Finance and Corporate Affairs Smt. Nirmala Sitharaman.

Economic Survey 2025-26 underlined that India is already deeply urban in economic terms, with the majority of its national output generated in cities and in urban areas. The task now is to make that urbanisation work better for citizens in tangible and intangible ways.

The survey positioned cities as economic assets that require deliberate investment and strategic planning. It stated that recognisation of cities as economic infrastructure is a necessary first step toward aligning public policy, fiscal priorities, and planning frameworks with India’s development trajectory.

CITIES ARE GROWTH ENGINES

According to Economic Survey 2025-26, India is far more urban in economic and functional terms than official definitions suggest. Based on satellite data from the Global Human Settlements Layer (GHSL) of the Group on Earth Observations at the European Commission, India was 63 per cent urban in 2015, which is nearly double the urbanisation rate reported in the 2011 Census.

Economic Survey maintained that the World Bank also estimated that by 2036, India’s towns and cities will be home to 600 million people, or 40 per cent of the population, up from 31 per cent in 2011, with urban areas contributing almost 70 per cent to GDP.

MOBILITY

Economic Survey 2025-26 stated that India has materially expanded mass rapid transit system over the last decade. As of 2025, around 1,036 km of Metro/RRTS are operational across around 24 cities, with further corridors under construction.

Economic Survey also mentioned that the Government has launched PM e-Bus Sewa to strengthen city bus operations with 10,000 e-buses on a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model, backed by ₹20,000 crore central assistance and a Payment Security Mechanism (PSM) to assure operator cashflows. During the FY 25, 7,293 e-buses have been approved across 14 States and 4 UTs, ₹983.75 crore sanctioned for depot and behind the meter power infrastructure, and ₹437.5 crore has already been disbursed

To further improve outcomes, Economic Survey 2025-26 suggested augmentation and digitisation of bus fleets, finance-first e-bus deployment, mainstreaming last-mile and shared mobility, operationalisation of Transit-oriented Development (TOD) and value capture around stations.   

URBAN CLEANLINESS

Economic Survey 2025-26 highlighted that over the past decade, the central government has undertaken one of the most ambitious and largest sanitation and waste management programmes globally under the Swachh Bharat Mission -Urban (SBM–U), complemented by investments under the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and AMRUT 2.0. These measures have yielded visible gains in sanitation outcomes, with the most notable being the elimination of open defecation across all cities.

Door-to-door collection of municipal solid waste (MSW), which was negligible in 2014–15, has expanded to 98 per cent of urban wards by 2025–26, supported by a fleet of over 2.5 lakh waste collection vehicles nationwide, according to the survey.

CITY UPGRADATION THROUGH TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION

The Survey stated that as of 9 May 2025, cities under the Smart Cities Mission (SCM)  had completed a substantial majority of planned projects — including smart roads, cycle tracks, command and control centres, upgraded water and sewerage networks, and vibrant public spaces with over 90 per cent of the roughly 8,067 projects completed and nearly ₹1.64 lakh crore invested.

The Government’s interventions to support affordable housing in urban areas including direct tax and GST benefits, inclusion in priority sector lending and provision of infrastructure status, amongst others. Under the two phases of the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U), a total of 122.06 lakh houses have been sanctioned, of which 96.02 lakh have been completed/delivered to the beneficiaries across the country as on 24.11.2025.

Survey explained that the Pradhan Mantri Street Vendor’s Atmanirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi) has played a central role in restoring and strengthening the livelihoods of urban street vendors (SV).

The Survey stated that aligning mandates, clarifying ownership of outcomes, and insulating routine enforcement from ad-hoc intervention are therefore central to making rule certainty credible in everyday urban governance.

PLANNING, GOVERNANCE AND FINANCING

The Government of India has taken a series of concerted efforts to address the financing requirements of city and urban development. The Urban Infrastructure Development Fund (UIDF), announced in the Union Budget 2023–24 with an initial outlay of ₹10,000 crore, was designed as a revolving fund routed through financial institutions to support Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities that lack creditworthiness but have viable infrastructure projects, said the Economic Survey 2025-26.

The Economic Survey tabled in Parliament today proposed that every million-plus city should be required to prepare a statutory 20-year City Spatial and Economic Plan, updated every five years, with three non-negotiable elements:

1. a transport network plan,
2. a housing supply plan with annual unit targets, and
3. a land-value capture framework linked to infrastructure corridors.

SYSTEM-BASED CIVIC-SENSE AWARENESS

The survey stated that communication should reinforce predictable systems rather than substitute for them. Simple, local, and repetitive messaging focused on a small set of high-impact behaviours works best when delivered at the point of action.

CONCLUSION

Future urban policy must prioritise system performance over standalone projects—integrating housing, mobility, sanitation, climate resilience, and finance—while designing liveable, climate-ready cities that support inclusion and long-term economic efficiency.

The Economic Survey 2025- 26 said that the promise of building India’s urban future lies in making our cities economically dynamic, socially inclusive, environmentally sustainable and institutionally capable.

ECONOMIC SURVEY 2025-26 - URBANISATION: MAKING INDIA’S CITIES WORK FOR ITS CITIZENS

Infrastructure Development and Urbanisation

 

Urbanization Trends in India

 

Urbanization in India - Trends:

lndia is on a clear upward trajectory of urbanization, with its urban population steadily increasing. According to projections by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare for the period 2011—2036, urban India is expected to house 507 million people in 2ii25, accounting for 35.7% of the total population—up from 31% in 2011. By 2036, this figure is projected to rise to 600 million, comprising around 40% of the total population.

Key Urbanization Trends (2001—2011):

Emergence of New Urban Agglomerations: Eluting this period, 90 new urban agglomerations (UAs) emerged, indicating rapid urban expansion.

Growth of Million-Plus Cities: The number of cities with populations exceeding one million increased from 35 to 52, representing 42.3% of the total urban population.

Rise in Census Towns: There was a phenomenal increase of 2,530 new census towns, driven largely by economic growth and rural transformation. This trend has likely accelerated post-201 I due to ongoing infrastructure expansion and urban-centric development policies.

 

Challenges and Economic Implications:

Despite rapid urban growth, infrastructure and basic urban services have srtuggled to keep pace with the rising demands of population and businesses. This mismatch is hindering India's ability to fully leverage the economic potential of its urban areas.

A comparative analysis illustrates this gap clearly:

● East Asia and the Pacific region contributes 29% of global GDP with 32% of the global population-a GDP-to-population ratio of 0.91.

● In contrast, South Asia, with 14% of the global urban population, produces only 8% of global GDP—a significantly lower ratio of 0.57.

This disparity indicates that congestion effects and infrastructure bottlenecks in Indian cities are limiting productivity and economic returns, making urbanization a double-edged sword.

 

Current Institutional Landscape:

(i) Central Government Initiatives:

Encourage devolution of 18 functions (Schedule 12 of the Constitution) to ULBs. These fonctions include:

• Urban planning

• Water supply

• Public health

• Sanitation

• Urban forestry

• Slum improvement

• Fire services, etc.

 

(ii) State Government Initiatives (Observed Trends):

Functional Fragmentation:

Despite the call for devolution, many states have created parallel bodies, instead of empowering ULBs directly:

Ø  Boards and Corporations manage key services like:

• Water supply

• Sewerage and sanitation

• Often in mega-cities, these are outside the control of municipal bodies (e.g., Jai Boards, Sewerage Boards).

Ø  Urban Development Authorities (UDAs):

• Handle urban planning, land use regulation, building permissions.

• These often function independently of ULBs, reducing local planning authority.

Ø  State Nodal Agencies:

• Created for pooled procurement or project implementation, especially under central schemes like AMRUT or Smart Cities.

• Often act as intermediaries, again bypassing ULBs.

 

(iii) Mission Mode Implementation:

• Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) or Project Management Units (PMUs):

• Created for programs like Smart Cities Mission.

• Though efficient in project delivery, they often sideline ULBs in decision-making.

 

(iv) Oversight Mechanisms:

• Regional Commissioners or Additional District Magistrates:

• Provide supervisory control over urban settlements.

• This can dilute ULBs' autonomy, keeping power with district-level officers.

 

(v) Institutional Integration Attempts:

• Merging Rural and Urban Departments at the State level:

•This seeks to harmonize service delivery across rural-urban boundaries.

•Usefiil for managing peri-urban areas, but can create administrative confusion if not clearly delineated.

 

(vi) Single Operator for Water Suppiy:

• Entrusting water supply to a single district/city-level operator:

• Can enhance service quality, efficiency.

• But raises concerns about ULBs losing control over a critical local function.

 

Assessment:

While these initiatives aim to improve urban governance and service delivery, many of

• Reinforce centralized or state-level control.

• Bypass or weaken ULBs, contrary to the spirit of the 74th Amendment.

• Reduce accountability to elected local representatives.

 

Way Forward

• True devolution of the 18 functions must be backed by financial, functional, and administrative autonomy.

• Strengthen ULB capacity (technical, financial, human resources).

• Encourage convergence, not bypassing, of initiatives.

• Define clear roles for state-level bodies vs. ULBs.

• Create accountability mechanisms involving local elected officials.

Planned development in Urban Areas

As per 12th Schedule of the Constitution of India, urban planning is the function of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)/ Urban Development Authorities.Government of India supplements the efforts of the States through schematic interventions/ advisories. Itprovides financial and technical support to the States.

Considering the fast pace of urbanization, the Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs (MoHUA), Government of India has taken several initiatives towards planned development in urban areas including the following:

• Urban and Regional Development Plan Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) Guidelines, 2014
• Model Building Bye-laws (MBBL) – 2016

The Ministry, through schematic interventions facilitates increasing land-use efficiency, promoting sustainability, affordability, and revenue generation through land as a planning tool. The MoHUA has announced the following schemes:

Under AMRUT: Sub-Scheme on “Formulation of GIS based Master Plan for 500 AMRUT Cities” was launched to support States for preparation of master plans in AMRUT towns. Final GIS database has been created for 443 towns, draft GIS based Master Plan prepared for 330 towns and final GIS based Master Plans has been notified for 180 towns.

Under AMRUT 2.0, Scheme for Formulation of GIS based Master Plans of Class-II Towns with population of 50,000 - 99,999 has been launched by MoHUA to support States financially and technically for undertaking planning initiatives in smaller cities. It has been approved for 675 towns with total outlay of Rs. 631Cr and is in initial stage of implementation.

Local Area Plan and Town Planning Scheme (LAP/TPS): 

Pilot Sub-Scheme for preparation of Town Planning Scheme (TPS) and Local Area Plans was launched in 2018. The Scheme has been conceived to bring planned urban development by mobilizing urban land in the city center and in the urban peripheries by adjustment of land parcels. It covers 25 cities in the first phase of Smart City Mission with allocation of around 50 crores.

In order to incentivize States to undertake urban planning reforms, following schemes were launched by MoHUA under the Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment ofDepartment of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance:

Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment 2022-23 – Part – VI (Urban Planning Reforms) with an allocation of Rs. 6000 Cr - The reform components include Modernization of Building Bylaws, Adoption of Transferrable Development Rights (TDR), Implementation of Local Area Plans (LAP) and Town Planning Schemes (TPS), Implementation of Transit-oriented Development (ToD), Creation of Sponge Cities, Removing Taxation for running the Buses for Public Transport. Funds amounting to Rs. 4093.16 Cr were released by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of finance to 12 States.

Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment 2023-24 – Part – III (Urban Planning Reforms) with an allocation of Rs. 15000 Cr - The reform components include Augmentation of human resources for strengthening urban planning ecosystem, Implementation of Town Planning Scheme (TPS)/ Land Pooling Scheme, Modernization of Building Bylaws, Promoting in-situ slum rehabilitation, Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), Transferable Development Rights as planning tool, Strengthening natural ecosystems of urban areas through urban planning.

India's first solar cycling track comes up in Hyderabad

Taking a significant leap toward an environmentally sustainable future in urban transportation, the country’s first solar roof cycling track was inaugurated in Hyderabad. The 23-km-long track, which has three lanes and produces 16 MW of solar power, is the second of its sort in the world after the solar rooftop-covered track in South Korea.Other solar bicycle routes are also being built in Switzerland and Dubai.The full track, known as Healthway, became 24/7 accessible on 2023, October 2. 

There are two lines that make up the system: the pink line, which runs 8.5 km from Nanakramguda to the Telangana State Police Academy (TSPA), and the blue line, which runs 14.5 km from Narsinghi hub to Kollur. 

The 23-km path has two stretches - a pink line of 8.5 km from Nanakramguda to Telangana State Police Academy and a blue line of 14.5 km from Kollur to Narsingi with five different access points. It is a three-lane track that is 4.5 meters wide, with one meter of green space on either side. The track is expected to become a prime hangout with facilities like ample parking space, surveillance cameras, food courts, drinking water, first aid, and restrooms. In a bid to make it easier for visitors; bicycle repair shops, along with cycle docking and rental stations and other services will also be made available.  A total of 16,000 solar panels were installed to generate 16 megawatts (MW) of power which will be utilized to light up the track at night and provide protection to cyclists from the sun, rain, and other weather conditions.

The Complex Relationship Between Public Transportation and Traffic Congestion

Traffic Congestion and Public Transport

• Despite the expectation that having good public transportation would reduce the number of people using personal vehicles and ease traffic congestion, this doesn't always happen. Many cities have invested heavily in public transit systems, but traffic jams persist or even get worse.
• Take London, for example. It has one of the world's most extensive public transportation networks, including subways, trains, buses, boats, trams, and more. However, London consistently ranks high in traffic congestion, and the number of registered cars in the city keeps increasing, showing that public transport alone doesn't discourage people from owning cars.
• Similarly, cities like Bogotá and Curitiba in South America have efficient bus systems that gained international recognition. Still, they struggle with traffic congestion and score high on congestion measures.
• In India, Delhi has dedicated a large part of its land to roads, developed an extensive metro system, and operates a sizable fleet of CNG-powered buses, along with a BRTS. Yet, traffic congestion remains a significant problem. Pune, another Indian city, has invested in public transport but is one of the most congested cities globally.
• Even Bengaluru, known as India's tech hub, has made substantial improvements in public transportation, including a metro system, a vast bus network, and various options for alternative transit. Despite these efforts, it's the second-most congested city according to the TomTom index, with traffic conditions getting worse.

The Complex Appeal of Personal Vehicles

• To figure out why traffic congestion remains a problem despite having good public transport, we need to understand why many people still prefer using their own cars. People who drive cars regularly choose them over public transport because they see several advantages in owning a personal vehicle.
• These advantages include the feeling of freedom and independence, the ability to set their own schedules, the comfort of a private space, the reliability of having their vehicle always available, and the sense of security that comes with it. For many, driving is a pleasant experience, especially when they're out with their families. Owning a car can also symbolize status and carry cultural and psychological importance.
• Moreover, in recent years, car manufacturers have made significant progress in addressing some of the downsides associated with personal vehicles. Modern cars are more eco-friendly, energy-efficient, and come equipped with safety features like airbags. Road construction projects also prioritize safety, making personal vehicles even more attractive to people.

The Global Rise of Car Usage

The evidence shows that, despite the environmental improvements in personal vehicles and the proliferation of public transportation systems, the use of cars continues to rise globally. Between 1950 and 1990, the number of motorized vehicles worldwide increased significantly, with approximately 80 percent of them dedicated to personal transportation. This trend was not limited to a specific region; passenger kilometers by private cars per capita increased by 90 percent in Western Europe between 1970 and 1990.

Public Transportation: An Ongoing Necessity

Despite the challenges and the persistent appeal of personal vehicles, public transportation remains a critical element of urban planning and development. There are three compelling arguments that continue to support the importance of public transport in cities:

• Environmental Benefits: Public transportation significantly reduces carbon emissions, leading to a notable reduction in air pollutants and improved air quality. These environmental advantages directly translate into health benefits for city residents, particularly through decreased respiratory ailments. Moreover, public transport reduces noise pollution and promotes fuel efficiency, contributing to a cleaner and healthier urban environment.
• Equity: Public transportation serves as an essential lifeline for the urban poor and those who do not own cars or two-wheelers. In many cities, this demographic constitutes the majority of the population. Public transport offers reliable and affordable mobility solutions, ensuring that transportation remains accessible to all segments of society.
• Counterbalance to Private Transport: City dynamics evolve over time, and circumstances may lead more individuals to choose public transport over personal vehicles. Factors such as worsening traffic congestion, longer commute times, increased stress, rising costs associated with car ownership, and disincentives imposed by city administrations can influence people's transportation choices. Public transportation must remain a viable and attractive option for these commuters.

Towards a Balanced Future

• While public transport alone may not eliminate traffic congestion, it remains an essential component of urban mobility solutions.
• Cities should adopt a multifaceted approach to address congestion effectively.
• This approach should not only focus on improving public transport but also on policies that target the functional, psychological, and cultural values associated with personal vehicles.
• Additionally, enhancing the performance of public transport to bridge the gap between personal vehicles and public transportation is crucial.

The relationship between public transportation and traffic congestion is complex and multifaceted. While public transport offers numerous environmental, safety, and equity advantages, it does not always succeed in reducing traffic congestion as expected. The appeal of personal vehicles, driven by factors like freedom, comfort, and cultural significance, continues to contribute to rising car usage globally. Nevertheless, public transportation remains indispensable in addressing urban challenges and providing accessible mobility options for all residents. Cities must continue to invest in both improving public transport and implementing policies that encourage a shift away from personal vehicles, creating a more balanced and sustainable urban transportation ecosystem.

Urbanization and Its Paradoxes: Opportunities and Obstacles in India

Urbanization is a common aspect of economic development, typically involving the migration of surplus rural population to urban areas as industrial centers grow. This transformation is closely tied to modernization and industrialization, marking a historic global shift from rural to predominantly urban culture. While urbanization offers opportunities for wealth and social mobility, it often unfolds in a haphazard and unplanned manner, particularly during rapid industrialization. According to the 2011 Census, India's urbanization rate stood at 31.2%, a significant increase from 27.8% in 2001.

Projections indicate that around 590 million people will reside in cities by 2030, underscoring the urgency of comprehending the growth patterns and their impact on the population. Causes of Rapid Urbanization The rapid urbanization phenomenon can be attributed to several key factors: 

1. Natural Population Growth: Urbanization is driven by the high rate of natural population increase, where cities experience a greater growth rate compared to rural areas. This can be attributed to improved healthcare services, better access to medical facilities, safe drinking water, and enhanced sanitation infrastructure, which contribute to higher survival rates in urban settings. 

2. Rural-Urban Migration: Rural-to-urban migration is a significant driver of rapid urbanization in India. The emergence of manufacturing and trade activities due to industrial development creates job opportunities and the promise of higher incomes, attracting rural residents to urban areas. This migration is often motivated by the prospects of employment and economic advancement. 

3. Industrial and Agricultural Development: The substantial public investments in industries, mining, and sustainable agricultural practices have fueled urbanization. The growth of industries, including their associated ancillary units, contributes to the development of urban centers. Likewise, the expansion of business and trade, accompanied by the establishment of vibrant markets, fosters urbanization in regions closely linked to industrial and trade growth. 

4. Push and Pull Factors: Rural-to-urban migration is influenced by both pull and push factors. Pull factors include the allure of urban opportunities, while push factors encompass economic constraints, lack of essential facilities, and even political unrest in rural areas, prompting individuals to seek better prospects in urban settings.

Consequences of Rapid Urbanization Consequences of rapid urbanization can be divided into both positive and negative aspects: 

Positive Aspects: 

1. Economic Growth: Rapid industrialization leads to the establishment of numerous industrial cities. These urban areas witness the growth of manufacturing units, ancillary industries, and the service sector, contributing to economic development. 

2. Employment Opportunities : Urbanization creates new job opportunities in expanding sectors like manufacturing and services. This results in rural-urban migration as people seek employment in these urban centers, further promoting industrialization and urbanization. 

3. Modernization and Changed Attitudes: Urbanization brings about changes in the mindset and behaviors of urban residents, fostering modernization and a progressive outlook. This shift indirectly contributes to accelerated economic development. 

Negative Aspects: 

1. Congestion: Rapid urbanization leads to increased congestion in urban areas, causing problems such as traffic jams and high population density. Managing these issues becomes challenging and costly. 

2. Low Quality of Life: The surge in urban population can result in various urban problems, including housing shortages, inadequate access to education and healthcare, the growth of slums, unemployment, violence, and overcrowding. These factors collectively lead to a decline in the overall quality of life in urban areas. 

3. Loss of Rural Productivity: Large-scale rural-to-urban migration diminishes productivity in rural regions. This trend negatively impacts the rural economy, contributing to unfavorable conditions in villages. Over time, excessive urbanization can have detrimental consequences.

The significance of Urban Living The significance of urban living is underscored by several key factors:

Enhanced Access to Facilities: Urban living is associated with higher literacy rates, improved access to education, better healthcare, longer life expectancy, and greater availability of social services. This urbanization-linked advantage offers individuals increased opportunities for cultural engagement and political participation. Additionally, urban areas typically offer convenient proximity to hospitals, clinics, and healthcare services, resulting in improved emergency care and overall health outcomes. 

Access to Information: Urban living provides easier access to sources of information, such as radio and television, which can be utilized to disseminate crucial health-related information to the general public. For example, urban women often have greater awareness of family planning methods, leading to reduced family sizes and fewer childbirths. 

Individualism: Urban environments foster individualism due to the myriad of opportunities, social diversity, and reduced familial and social control over decision-making. This setting encourages self-interest and empowers individuals to make independent choices about their careers and actions. Urban living promotes autonomy and self-determination in decision-making processes. 

Issues associated with Urbanization Urbanization presents a range of pressing issues, including: 

1. Population Pressure: Rapid rural-tourban migration leads to an overwhelming increase in urban population, straining existing public infrastructure. This surge in population contributes to challenges like slums, crime, unemployment, urban poverty, pollution, congestion, and public health problems. 

2. Proliferation of Slums: Across the country, there are approximately 13.7 million slum households, accommodating about 65.49 million people. Approximately 65% of Indian cities have adjacent slums where people live in cramped and substandard housing conditions. 

3. Housing Shortages: One of the most distressing issues associated with urbanization is inadequate housing. A significant portion of the urban population resides in poor-quality housing with limited space. In India, more than half of urban households live in single rooms, with an average of 4.4 persons per room. 

4. Unplanned Development: Urbanization often leads to unplanned development, exacerbating the socio-economic divide between the affluent and the underprivileged. The lack of proper planning perpetuates inequality within urban areas.

 5. Pandemic-Induced Problems: The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the challenges faced by the urban poor and slum dwellers. Lockdown measures severely affected their livelihoods, highlighting their vulnerability. 6. Non-Inclusive Welfare Schemes: Many welfare schemes intended for the urban poor fail to reach their target beneficiaries effectively. Inclusion and exclusion errors often result in a significant portion of slum dwellers not receiving the benefits and relief they need.

India’s Initiatives for Urbanization India has implemented several key initiatives and programs to promote urbanization and address urban development challenges. Some of the notable initiatives include:

1. Smart Cities Mission: Launched to develop 100 smart cities across the country, this initiative focuses on using technology and data-driven solutions to improve urban infrastructure, enhance quality of life, and promote sustainable urban development. 

2. AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) Mission: AMRUT is aimed at providing basic urban services such as water supply, sewage, and urban transport to ensure that every urban household has access to essential infrastructure. It seeks to improve the quality of life in urban areas. 

3. Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban: This mission is dedicated to making urban areas in India clean and open defecation-free. It emphasizes solid waste management, the construction of toilets, and the promotion of clean and hygienic practices in urban communities. 

4. HRIDAY (Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana): HRIDAY focuses on preserving and revitalizing heritage cities in India. It includes initiatives for heritage conservation, infrastructure development, and the enhancement of socio-economic and cultural aspects in these cities. 

5. Pradhan Mantri Awas YojanaUrban: This housing scheme aims to provide affordable housing for all in urban areas. It seeks to address the housing needs of economically weaker sections and promote the development of affordable housing projects.

6. Aspirational District Programme: While not exclusively an urban initiative, this program aims to transform the overall development landscape in 112 of India's most backward districts. It includes urban development components and seeks to improve various aspects of life in these districts, including urban areas.

These initiatives collectively aim to foster sustainable urbanization, improve urban infrastructure, enhance the quality of life for urban residents, and address the unique challenges posed by rapid urban growth in India.

Promoting Inclusive Urban Development:  Embracing an integrated approach to urban planning that involves all development sectors while placing a strong emphasis on inclusivity within urban development efforts. 

Utilizing Data-Driven Approaches:  Leveraging scientific data methods to assess and monitor the outcomes of both state and central schemes, ensuring that decisions are grounded in evidence. 

Empowering Citizen Engagement:  Fostering greater citizen involvement in civic matters through both physical and digital channels to ensure that urban governance reflects the needs and priorities of the people. 

Strategic Planning and Investment:  Prioritizing strategic thinking and investments, including engagement with the private sector, and fostering coordinated efforts among various agencies to effectively address the multifaceted challenges confronting cities.  

Types of Urban Settlements

Depending on the size and the services available and functions rendered, urban centres are designated as town, city, million city, conurbation, megalopolis. 

Town:

The concept of ‘town’ can best be understood with reference to ‘village’. Population size is not the only criterion. Functional contrasts between towns and villages may not always be clearcut, but specific functions such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.

City:

A city may be regarded as a leading town, which has outstripped its local or regional rivals. In the words of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in fact the physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life”. Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater number of economic functions. They tend to have transport terminals, major financial institutions and regional administrative offices. When the population crosses the one million mark it is designated as a million city.

Conurbation: 

The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities. Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples. 

Megalopolis:

This Greek word meaning “great city”, was popularised by Jean Gottman (1957) and signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending, as union of conurbations. The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the best known example of a megalopolis.

Million City: 

The number of million cities in the world has been increasing as never before. London reached the million mark in 1800, followed by Paris in 1850, New York in 1860, and by 1950 there were around 80 such cities. The rate of increase in the number of million cities has been three-fold in every three decades – around 160 in 1975 to around 438 in 2005.

Climate Change, Disaster risks to be included in Town Planning Act

 

U20 Summit Highlights : Urban Governance Challenges and Promises in India

• The recent Urban 20 (U20) summit held in Ahmedabad on July 7 and 8, 2023, has brought attention to India's urban governance and politics, offering an opportunity for introspection and improvement.
• The U20 summit, established in 2018 to facilitate discussions among G20 member countries on urban issues, presented recommendations for the upcoming G20 Heads of State and Government Summit scheduled for September 9 and 10. As Ahmedabad takes the helm of U20 leadership, the city's achievements and challenges in urban development come to the fore, prompting reflection on the country's own urban landscape.

• Urban local body Success Stories

• Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation: Ahmedabad stands as a compelling example of successful infrastructural development in the Global South. The city's implementation of innovative and liberal urban planning policies has led to notable achievements. Ahmedabad's adept management of urban expansion and execution of challenging large-scale public projects demonstrate the potential of effective urban governance.
• The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) has executed numerous innovative measures aimed at enhancing the quality of life for its residents. Among these initiatives is the Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited (AJL), a collaborative effort between the public and private sectors that operates a network of bus rapid transit corridors.
• Pune Municipal Corporation: The Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) has gained recognition for its effective waste management strategies. These include the implementation of a door-to-door waste collection system and the establishment of a facility dedicated to waste segregation and processing.
• Surat Municipal Corporation: The Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) has leveraged technology to drive progress in infrastructure projects and has set up a centralized control room to manage emergency situations. Additionally, the SMC has focused on crafting pedestrian-friendly streets and creating multiple public parks.

• Historical Evolution of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India

  The concept of urban local bodies in India has a rich historical legacy dating back to ancient times. In ancient Indian cities, local councils and committees were responsible for maintaining order, regulating trade, and providing essential public services like water supply and waste management. During the British colonial period, elected municipal councils were introduced, with Madras (now Chennai) witnessing the establishment of the first municipal corporation in 1688. Post-independence, India retained the system of local self-government but made significant amendments, including the recognition of ULBs as a tier of government through the 74th Amendment in 1992. Today, ULBs play a pivotal role in urban development and citizen well-being.

  Current Structure of Urban Local Governance in India:

  Urban local governance in India encompasses a diverse range of bodies. Municipal Corporations manage metropolitan cities with populations exceeding one million, operating under the Mayor-in-Council system. Municipal Councils oversee intermediate cities and follow the President-in-Council model. Smaller towns are managed by Nagar Panchayats, functioning under the Chairperson-in-Council structure. Additionally, special-purpose ULBs such as Port Trusts and Industrial Development Authorities address specific urban development projects. This multi-tiered framework ensures tailored governance approaches based on the scale and needs of urban areas.

  Constitutional and Legal Framework for ULBs

  The foundation of ULBs' functioning is enshrined in the Constitution of India and statutory laws at both the national and state levels. Part IXA and the 12th Schedule of the Constitution focus on "Municipalities," outlining their establishment and composition. State Municipal Acts, unique to each state, provide the legal groundwork for ULBs' operations, detailing their composition, powers, functions, and administrative and financial protocols. The Metro Railways Act of 1978 addresses the development and maintenance of rapid transit systems in metropolitan cities, emphasizing the importance of efficient urban infrastructure.

  Challenges and Strengthening of ULBs

  ULBs in India confront several challenges that impact their effectiveness. Limited financial resources, dependence on higher government levels for decision-making, and inadequate public participation hamper their ability to address citizens' needs comprehensively. To strengthen ULBs, empowering decentralization is crucial. Granting them greater autonomy and decision-making power, coupled with enhanced financial management, can enable efficient service delivery. Capacity-building initiatives, improved transparency, collaborative governance, and increased public involvement can fortify ULBs, enhancing their ability to manage urban complexities and improve citizens' quality of life.

  Why focus on urban development?

  • Today, more than half of the global population lives in cities, and it is estimated that cities will host two-thirds of all people by 2050. Cities also consume over 75% of the world’s energy, generate 75% of related emissions, and they are experiencing the impacts of climate change first-hand.
  • However, with millions of people living in dense urban areas, cities are also most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, disasters, environmental degradation, resource depletion, chaotic growth, and socio-economic inequality.
  • It is, therefore, the right time to utilize the potential of urbanization as a catalyst to drive the ‘right’ kind of growth that is sustainable, inclusive, and equitable.

  Challenges of Exclusionary Urban Governance

  • However, Ahmedabad also serves as a case study in exclusionary urban governance. The city's socio-legal landscape is marked by communal segregation, where areas predominantly occupied by minority and underprivileged caste communities face governmental neglect. Unique legislation like the Disturbed Areas Act in Gujarat perpetuates this exclusion, inhibiting property exchange and deepening social divisions.

  U20 Communique's Promising Vision

  • The U20 summit published a Communique outlining recommendations for inclusive and sustainable urban development. Emphasizing environmentally responsible behaviors, water security, climate finance acceleration, local culture and economy empowerment, urban governance and planning reinvention, and digital urban futures catalysis, the Communique aims to address both environmental and social challenges.

  Gaps and Contradictions in U20's Vision

  • Despite its promising agenda, the U20 Communique falls short in addressing critical issues like Gujarat's Disturbed Areas Act and the politics of urban exclusion. While advocating for equality and justice in urban development, the Communique fails to acknowledge the socio-religious divisions perpetuated by such laws. Recent trends, including communal tensions and the criminalization of public religious activities in some Indian cities, contrast with the Communique's calls for equitable public spaces.

  Importance of Learning from Fellow Members

  • The participation of mayors from member countries like Argentina and the USA, who have demonstrated efficient and equitable urban development, underscores the importance of learning from fellow members. India should heed these recommendations and reflect on its urban governance against the backdrop of the U20 Communique.

  Opportunity for Self-Reflection

  • The upcoming G20 meet, for which the U20 has provided recommendations, serves as a crucial juncture for India to assess its own urban governance and politics. Over the past two decades, India has shown enthusiasm for planned urban development. However, the persistence of communal narratives and segregation has hindered inclusive progress. The U20 Communique's vision can guide India's efforts toward equitable and inclusive urban growth.

  Conclusion

  As Ahmedabad hosts the U20 summit, India's urban governance and politics come under scrutiny. The summit's recommendations offer a promising vision for inclusive and sustainable urban development. Yet, challenges like the Disturbed Areas Act and communal tensions highlight the need for comprehensive and holistic reform. India's commitment to the U20 promise necessitates a shift away from exclusionary policies, ensuring an urban future that truly embodies equality, justice, and inclusive progress.