Planned development in Urban Areas

As per 12th Schedule of the Constitution of India, urban planning is the function of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)/ Urban Development Authorities.Government of India supplements the efforts of the States through schematic interventions/ advisories. Itprovides financial and technical support to the States.

Considering the fast pace of urbanization, the Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs (MoHUA), Government of India has taken several initiatives towards planned development in urban areas including the following:

• Urban and Regional Development Plan Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) Guidelines, 2014
• Model Building Bye-laws (MBBL) – 2016

The Ministry, through schematic interventions facilitates increasing land-use efficiency, promoting sustainability, affordability, and revenue generation through land as a planning tool. The MoHUA has announced the following schemes:

Under AMRUT: Sub-Scheme on “Formulation of GIS based Master Plan for 500 AMRUT Cities” was launched to support States for preparation of master plans in AMRUT towns. Final GIS database has been created for 443 towns, draft GIS based Master Plan prepared for 330 towns and final GIS based Master Plans has been notified for 180 towns.

Under AMRUT 2.0, Scheme for Formulation of GIS based Master Plans of Class-II Towns with population of 50,000 - 99,999 has been launched by MoHUA to support States financially and technically for undertaking planning initiatives in smaller cities. It has been approved for 675 towns with total outlay of Rs. 631Cr and is in initial stage of implementation.

Local Area Plan and Town Planning Scheme (LAP/TPS): 

Pilot Sub-Scheme for preparation of Town Planning Scheme (TPS) and Local Area Plans was launched in 2018. The Scheme has been conceived to bring planned urban development by mobilizing urban land in the city center and in the urban peripheries by adjustment of land parcels. It covers 25 cities in the first phase of Smart City Mission with allocation of around 50 crores.

In order to incentivize States to undertake urban planning reforms, following schemes were launched by MoHUA under the Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment ofDepartment of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance:

Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment 2022-23 – Part – VI (Urban Planning Reforms) with an allocation of Rs. 6000 Cr - The reform components include Modernization of Building Bylaws, Adoption of Transferrable Development Rights (TDR), Implementation of Local Area Plans (LAP) and Town Planning Schemes (TPS), Implementation of Transit-oriented Development (ToD), Creation of Sponge Cities, Removing Taxation for running the Buses for Public Transport. Funds amounting to Rs. 4093.16 Cr were released by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of finance to 12 States.

Scheme for Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment 2023-24 – Part – III (Urban Planning Reforms) with an allocation of Rs. 15000 Cr - The reform components include Augmentation of human resources for strengthening urban planning ecosystem, Implementation of Town Planning Scheme (TPS)/ Land Pooling Scheme, Modernization of Building Bylaws, Promoting in-situ slum rehabilitation, Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), Transferable Development Rights as planning tool, Strengthening natural ecosystems of urban areas through urban planning.

India's first solar cycling track comes up in Hyderabad

Taking a significant leap toward an environmentally sustainable future in urban transportation, the country’s first solar roof cycling track was inaugurated in Hyderabad. The 23-km-long track, which has three lanes and produces 16 MW of solar power, is the second of its sort in the world after the solar rooftop-covered track in South Korea.Other solar bicycle routes are also being built in Switzerland and Dubai.The full track, known as Healthway, became 24/7 accessible on 2023, October 2. 

There are two lines that make up the system: the pink line, which runs 8.5 km from Nanakramguda to the Telangana State Police Academy (TSPA), and the blue line, which runs 14.5 km from Narsinghi hub to Kollur. 

The 23-km path has two stretches - a pink line of 8.5 km from Nanakramguda to Telangana State Police Academy and a blue line of 14.5 km from Kollur to Narsingi with five different access points. It is a three-lane track that is 4.5 meters wide, with one meter of green space on either side. The track is expected to become a prime hangout with facilities like ample parking space, surveillance cameras, food courts, drinking water, first aid, and restrooms. In a bid to make it easier for visitors; bicycle repair shops, along with cycle docking and rental stations and other services will also be made available.  A total of 16,000 solar panels were installed to generate 16 megawatts (MW) of power which will be utilized to light up the track at night and provide protection to cyclists from the sun, rain, and other weather conditions.

The Complex Relationship Between Public Transportation and Traffic Congestion

Traffic Congestion and Public Transport

• Despite the expectation that having good public transportation would reduce the number of people using personal vehicles and ease traffic congestion, this doesn't always happen. Many cities have invested heavily in public transit systems, but traffic jams persist or even get worse.
• Take London, for example. It has one of the world's most extensive public transportation networks, including subways, trains, buses, boats, trams, and more. However, London consistently ranks high in traffic congestion, and the number of registered cars in the city keeps increasing, showing that public transport alone doesn't discourage people from owning cars.
• Similarly, cities like Bogotá and Curitiba in South America have efficient bus systems that gained international recognition. Still, they struggle with traffic congestion and score high on congestion measures.
• In India, Delhi has dedicated a large part of its land to roads, developed an extensive metro system, and operates a sizable fleet of CNG-powered buses, along with a BRTS. Yet, traffic congestion remains a significant problem. Pune, another Indian city, has invested in public transport but is one of the most congested cities globally.
• Even Bengaluru, known as India's tech hub, has made substantial improvements in public transportation, including a metro system, a vast bus network, and various options for alternative transit. Despite these efforts, it's the second-most congested city according to the TomTom index, with traffic conditions getting worse.

The Complex Appeal of Personal Vehicles

• To figure out why traffic congestion remains a problem despite having good public transport, we need to understand why many people still prefer using their own cars. People who drive cars regularly choose them over public transport because they see several advantages in owning a personal vehicle.
• These advantages include the feeling of freedom and independence, the ability to set their own schedules, the comfort of a private space, the reliability of having their vehicle always available, and the sense of security that comes with it. For many, driving is a pleasant experience, especially when they're out with their families. Owning a car can also symbolize status and carry cultural and psychological importance.
• Moreover, in recent years, car manufacturers have made significant progress in addressing some of the downsides associated with personal vehicles. Modern cars are more eco-friendly, energy-efficient, and come equipped with safety features like airbags. Road construction projects also prioritize safety, making personal vehicles even more attractive to people.

The Global Rise of Car Usage

The evidence shows that, despite the environmental improvements in personal vehicles and the proliferation of public transportation systems, the use of cars continues to rise globally. Between 1950 and 1990, the number of motorized vehicles worldwide increased significantly, with approximately 80 percent of them dedicated to personal transportation. This trend was not limited to a specific region; passenger kilometers by private cars per capita increased by 90 percent in Western Europe between 1970 and 1990.

Public Transportation: An Ongoing Necessity

Despite the challenges and the persistent appeal of personal vehicles, public transportation remains a critical element of urban planning and development. There are three compelling arguments that continue to support the importance of public transport in cities:

• Environmental Benefits: Public transportation significantly reduces carbon emissions, leading to a notable reduction in air pollutants and improved air quality. These environmental advantages directly translate into health benefits for city residents, particularly through decreased respiratory ailments. Moreover, public transport reduces noise pollution and promotes fuel efficiency, contributing to a cleaner and healthier urban environment.
• Equity: Public transportation serves as an essential lifeline for the urban poor and those who do not own cars or two-wheelers. In many cities, this demographic constitutes the majority of the population. Public transport offers reliable and affordable mobility solutions, ensuring that transportation remains accessible to all segments of society.
• Counterbalance to Private Transport: City dynamics evolve over time, and circumstances may lead more individuals to choose public transport over personal vehicles. Factors such as worsening traffic congestion, longer commute times, increased stress, rising costs associated with car ownership, and disincentives imposed by city administrations can influence people's transportation choices. Public transportation must remain a viable and attractive option for these commuters.

Towards a Balanced Future

• While public transport alone may not eliminate traffic congestion, it remains an essential component of urban mobility solutions.
• Cities should adopt a multifaceted approach to address congestion effectively.
• This approach should not only focus on improving public transport but also on policies that target the functional, psychological, and cultural values associated with personal vehicles.
• Additionally, enhancing the performance of public transport to bridge the gap between personal vehicles and public transportation is crucial.

The relationship between public transportation and traffic congestion is complex and multifaceted. While public transport offers numerous environmental, safety, and equity advantages, it does not always succeed in reducing traffic congestion as expected. The appeal of personal vehicles, driven by factors like freedom, comfort, and cultural significance, continues to contribute to rising car usage globally. Nevertheless, public transportation remains indispensable in addressing urban challenges and providing accessible mobility options for all residents. Cities must continue to invest in both improving public transport and implementing policies that encourage a shift away from personal vehicles, creating a more balanced and sustainable urban transportation ecosystem.

Urbanization and Its Paradoxes: Opportunities and Obstacles in India

Urbanization is a common aspect of economic development, typically involving the migration of surplus rural population to urban areas as industrial centers grow. This transformation is closely tied to modernization and industrialization, marking a historic global shift from rural to predominantly urban culture. While urbanization offers opportunities for wealth and social mobility, it often unfolds in a haphazard and unplanned manner, particularly during rapid industrialization. According to the 2011 Census, India's urbanization rate stood at 31.2%, a significant increase from 27.8% in 2001.

Projections indicate that around 590 million people will reside in cities by 2030, underscoring the urgency of comprehending the growth patterns and their impact on the population. Causes of Rapid Urbanization The rapid urbanization phenomenon can be attributed to several key factors: 

1. Natural Population Growth: Urbanization is driven by the high rate of natural population increase, where cities experience a greater growth rate compared to rural areas. This can be attributed to improved healthcare services, better access to medical facilities, safe drinking water, and enhanced sanitation infrastructure, which contribute to higher survival rates in urban settings. 

2. Rural-Urban Migration: Rural-to-urban migration is a significant driver of rapid urbanization in India. The emergence of manufacturing and trade activities due to industrial development creates job opportunities and the promise of higher incomes, attracting rural residents to urban areas. This migration is often motivated by the prospects of employment and economic advancement. 

3. Industrial and Agricultural Development: The substantial public investments in industries, mining, and sustainable agricultural practices have fueled urbanization. The growth of industries, including their associated ancillary units, contributes to the development of urban centers. Likewise, the expansion of business and trade, accompanied by the establishment of vibrant markets, fosters urbanization in regions closely linked to industrial and trade growth. 

4. Push and Pull Factors: Rural-to-urban migration is influenced by both pull and push factors. Pull factors include the allure of urban opportunities, while push factors encompass economic constraints, lack of essential facilities, and even political unrest in rural areas, prompting individuals to seek better prospects in urban settings.

Consequences of Rapid Urbanization Consequences of rapid urbanization can be divided into both positive and negative aspects: 

Positive Aspects: 

1. Economic Growth: Rapid industrialization leads to the establishment of numerous industrial cities. These urban areas witness the growth of manufacturing units, ancillary industries, and the service sector, contributing to economic development. 

2. Employment Opportunities : Urbanization creates new job opportunities in expanding sectors like manufacturing and services. This results in rural-urban migration as people seek employment in these urban centers, further promoting industrialization and urbanization. 

3. Modernization and Changed Attitudes: Urbanization brings about changes in the mindset and behaviors of urban residents, fostering modernization and a progressive outlook. This shift indirectly contributes to accelerated economic development. 

Negative Aspects: 

1. Congestion: Rapid urbanization leads to increased congestion in urban areas, causing problems such as traffic jams and high population density. Managing these issues becomes challenging and costly. 

2. Low Quality of Life: The surge in urban population can result in various urban problems, including housing shortages, inadequate access to education and healthcare, the growth of slums, unemployment, violence, and overcrowding. These factors collectively lead to a decline in the overall quality of life in urban areas. 

3. Loss of Rural Productivity: Large-scale rural-to-urban migration diminishes productivity in rural regions. This trend negatively impacts the rural economy, contributing to unfavorable conditions in villages. Over time, excessive urbanization can have detrimental consequences.

The significance of Urban Living The significance of urban living is underscored by several key factors:

Enhanced Access to Facilities: Urban living is associated with higher literacy rates, improved access to education, better healthcare, longer life expectancy, and greater availability of social services. This urbanization-linked advantage offers individuals increased opportunities for cultural engagement and political participation. Additionally, urban areas typically offer convenient proximity to hospitals, clinics, and healthcare services, resulting in improved emergency care and overall health outcomes. 

Access to Information: Urban living provides easier access to sources of information, such as radio and television, which can be utilized to disseminate crucial health-related information to the general public. For example, urban women often have greater awareness of family planning methods, leading to reduced family sizes and fewer childbirths. 

Individualism: Urban environments foster individualism due to the myriad of opportunities, social diversity, and reduced familial and social control over decision-making. This setting encourages self-interest and empowers individuals to make independent choices about their careers and actions. Urban living promotes autonomy and self-determination in decision-making processes. 

Issues associated with Urbanization Urbanization presents a range of pressing issues, including: 

1. Population Pressure: Rapid rural-tourban migration leads to an overwhelming increase in urban population, straining existing public infrastructure. This surge in population contributes to challenges like slums, crime, unemployment, urban poverty, pollution, congestion, and public health problems. 

2. Proliferation of Slums: Across the country, there are approximately 13.7 million slum households, accommodating about 65.49 million people. Approximately 65% of Indian cities have adjacent slums where people live in cramped and substandard housing conditions. 

3. Housing Shortages: One of the most distressing issues associated with urbanization is inadequate housing. A significant portion of the urban population resides in poor-quality housing with limited space. In India, more than half of urban households live in single rooms, with an average of 4.4 persons per room. 

4. Unplanned Development: Urbanization often leads to unplanned development, exacerbating the socio-economic divide between the affluent and the underprivileged. The lack of proper planning perpetuates inequality within urban areas.

 5. Pandemic-Induced Problems: The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the challenges faced by the urban poor and slum dwellers. Lockdown measures severely affected their livelihoods, highlighting their vulnerability. 6. Non-Inclusive Welfare Schemes: Many welfare schemes intended for the urban poor fail to reach their target beneficiaries effectively. Inclusion and exclusion errors often result in a significant portion of slum dwellers not receiving the benefits and relief they need.

India’s Initiatives for Urbanization India has implemented several key initiatives and programs to promote urbanization and address urban development challenges. Some of the notable initiatives include:

1. Smart Cities Mission: Launched to develop 100 smart cities across the country, this initiative focuses on using technology and data-driven solutions to improve urban infrastructure, enhance quality of life, and promote sustainable urban development. 

2. AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) Mission: AMRUT is aimed at providing basic urban services such as water supply, sewage, and urban transport to ensure that every urban household has access to essential infrastructure. It seeks to improve the quality of life in urban areas. 

3. Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban: This mission is dedicated to making urban areas in India clean and open defecation-free. It emphasizes solid waste management, the construction of toilets, and the promotion of clean and hygienic practices in urban communities. 

4. HRIDAY (Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana): HRIDAY focuses on preserving and revitalizing heritage cities in India. It includes initiatives for heritage conservation, infrastructure development, and the enhancement of socio-economic and cultural aspects in these cities. 

5. Pradhan Mantri Awas YojanaUrban: This housing scheme aims to provide affordable housing for all in urban areas. It seeks to address the housing needs of economically weaker sections and promote the development of affordable housing projects.

6. Aspirational District Programme: While not exclusively an urban initiative, this program aims to transform the overall development landscape in 112 of India's most backward districts. It includes urban development components and seeks to improve various aspects of life in these districts, including urban areas.

These initiatives collectively aim to foster sustainable urbanization, improve urban infrastructure, enhance the quality of life for urban residents, and address the unique challenges posed by rapid urban growth in India.

Promoting Inclusive Urban Development:  Embracing an integrated approach to urban planning that involves all development sectors while placing a strong emphasis on inclusivity within urban development efforts. 

Utilizing Data-Driven Approaches:  Leveraging scientific data methods to assess and monitor the outcomes of both state and central schemes, ensuring that decisions are grounded in evidence. 

Empowering Citizen Engagement:  Fostering greater citizen involvement in civic matters through both physical and digital channels to ensure that urban governance reflects the needs and priorities of the people. 

Strategic Planning and Investment:  Prioritizing strategic thinking and investments, including engagement with the private sector, and fostering coordinated efforts among various agencies to effectively address the multifaceted challenges confronting cities.  

Types of Urban Settlements

Depending on the size and the services available and functions rendered, urban centres are designated as town, city, million city, conurbation, megalopolis. 

Town:

The concept of ‘town’ can best be understood with reference to ‘village’. Population size is not the only criterion. Functional contrasts between towns and villages may not always be clearcut, but specific functions such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.

City:

A city may be regarded as a leading town, which has outstripped its local or regional rivals. In the words of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in fact the physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life”. Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater number of economic functions. They tend to have transport terminals, major financial institutions and regional administrative offices. When the population crosses the one million mark it is designated as a million city.

Conurbation: 

The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities. Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples. 

Megalopolis:

This Greek word meaning “great city”, was popularised by Jean Gottman (1957) and signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending, as union of conurbations. The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the best known example of a megalopolis.

Million City: 

The number of million cities in the world has been increasing as never before. London reached the million mark in 1800, followed by Paris in 1850, New York in 1860, and by 1950 there were around 80 such cities. The rate of increase in the number of million cities has been three-fold in every three decades – around 160 in 1975 to around 438 in 2005.

Climate Change, Disaster risks to be included in Town Planning Act

 

U20 Summit Highlights : Urban Governance Challenges and Promises in India

• The recent Urban 20 (U20) summit held in Ahmedabad on July 7 and 8, 2023, has brought attention to India's urban governance and politics, offering an opportunity for introspection and improvement.
• The U20 summit, established in 2018 to facilitate discussions among G20 member countries on urban issues, presented recommendations for the upcoming G20 Heads of State and Government Summit scheduled for September 9 and 10. As Ahmedabad takes the helm of U20 leadership, the city's achievements and challenges in urban development come to the fore, prompting reflection on the country's own urban landscape.

• Urban local body Success Stories

• Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation: Ahmedabad stands as a compelling example of successful infrastructural development in the Global South. The city's implementation of innovative and liberal urban planning policies has led to notable achievements. Ahmedabad's adept management of urban expansion and execution of challenging large-scale public projects demonstrate the potential of effective urban governance.
• The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) has executed numerous innovative measures aimed at enhancing the quality of life for its residents. Among these initiatives is the Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited (AJL), a collaborative effort between the public and private sectors that operates a network of bus rapid transit corridors.
• Pune Municipal Corporation: The Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) has gained recognition for its effective waste management strategies. These include the implementation of a door-to-door waste collection system and the establishment of a facility dedicated to waste segregation and processing.
• Surat Municipal Corporation: The Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) has leveraged technology to drive progress in infrastructure projects and has set up a centralized control room to manage emergency situations. Additionally, the SMC has focused on crafting pedestrian-friendly streets and creating multiple public parks.

• Historical Evolution of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India

  The concept of urban local bodies in India has a rich historical legacy dating back to ancient times. In ancient Indian cities, local councils and committees were responsible for maintaining order, regulating trade, and providing essential public services like water supply and waste management. During the British colonial period, elected municipal councils were introduced, with Madras (now Chennai) witnessing the establishment of the first municipal corporation in 1688. Post-independence, India retained the system of local self-government but made significant amendments, including the recognition of ULBs as a tier of government through the 74th Amendment in 1992. Today, ULBs play a pivotal role in urban development and citizen well-being.

  Current Structure of Urban Local Governance in India:

  Urban local governance in India encompasses a diverse range of bodies. Municipal Corporations manage metropolitan cities with populations exceeding one million, operating under the Mayor-in-Council system. Municipal Councils oversee intermediate cities and follow the President-in-Council model. Smaller towns are managed by Nagar Panchayats, functioning under the Chairperson-in-Council structure. Additionally, special-purpose ULBs such as Port Trusts and Industrial Development Authorities address specific urban development projects. This multi-tiered framework ensures tailored governance approaches based on the scale and needs of urban areas.

  Constitutional and Legal Framework for ULBs

  The foundation of ULBs' functioning is enshrined in the Constitution of India and statutory laws at both the national and state levels. Part IXA and the 12th Schedule of the Constitution focus on "Municipalities," outlining their establishment and composition. State Municipal Acts, unique to each state, provide the legal groundwork for ULBs' operations, detailing their composition, powers, functions, and administrative and financial protocols. The Metro Railways Act of 1978 addresses the development and maintenance of rapid transit systems in metropolitan cities, emphasizing the importance of efficient urban infrastructure.

  Challenges and Strengthening of ULBs

  ULBs in India confront several challenges that impact their effectiveness. Limited financial resources, dependence on higher government levels for decision-making, and inadequate public participation hamper their ability to address citizens' needs comprehensively. To strengthen ULBs, empowering decentralization is crucial. Granting them greater autonomy and decision-making power, coupled with enhanced financial management, can enable efficient service delivery. Capacity-building initiatives, improved transparency, collaborative governance, and increased public involvement can fortify ULBs, enhancing their ability to manage urban complexities and improve citizens' quality of life.

  Why focus on urban development?

  • Today, more than half of the global population lives in cities, and it is estimated that cities will host two-thirds of all people by 2050. Cities also consume over 75% of the world’s energy, generate 75% of related emissions, and they are experiencing the impacts of climate change first-hand.
  • However, with millions of people living in dense urban areas, cities are also most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, disasters, environmental degradation, resource depletion, chaotic growth, and socio-economic inequality.
  • It is, therefore, the right time to utilize the potential of urbanization as a catalyst to drive the ‘right’ kind of growth that is sustainable, inclusive, and equitable.

  Challenges of Exclusionary Urban Governance

  • However, Ahmedabad also serves as a case study in exclusionary urban governance. The city's socio-legal landscape is marked by communal segregation, where areas predominantly occupied by minority and underprivileged caste communities face governmental neglect. Unique legislation like the Disturbed Areas Act in Gujarat perpetuates this exclusion, inhibiting property exchange and deepening social divisions.

  U20 Communique's Promising Vision

  • The U20 summit published a Communique outlining recommendations for inclusive and sustainable urban development. Emphasizing environmentally responsible behaviors, water security, climate finance acceleration, local culture and economy empowerment, urban governance and planning reinvention, and digital urban futures catalysis, the Communique aims to address both environmental and social challenges.

  Gaps and Contradictions in U20's Vision

  • Despite its promising agenda, the U20 Communique falls short in addressing critical issues like Gujarat's Disturbed Areas Act and the politics of urban exclusion. While advocating for equality and justice in urban development, the Communique fails to acknowledge the socio-religious divisions perpetuated by such laws. Recent trends, including communal tensions and the criminalization of public religious activities in some Indian cities, contrast with the Communique's calls for equitable public spaces.

  Importance of Learning from Fellow Members

  • The participation of mayors from member countries like Argentina and the USA, who have demonstrated efficient and equitable urban development, underscores the importance of learning from fellow members. India should heed these recommendations and reflect on its urban governance against the backdrop of the U20 Communique.

  Opportunity for Self-Reflection

  • The upcoming G20 meet, for which the U20 has provided recommendations, serves as a crucial juncture for India to assess its own urban governance and politics. Over the past two decades, India has shown enthusiasm for planned urban development. However, the persistence of communal narratives and segregation has hindered inclusive progress. The U20 Communique's vision can guide India's efforts toward equitable and inclusive urban growth.

  Conclusion

  As Ahmedabad hosts the U20 summit, India's urban governance and politics come under scrutiny. The summit's recommendations offer a promising vision for inclusive and sustainable urban development. Yet, challenges like the Disturbed Areas Act and communal tensions highlight the need for comprehensive and holistic reform. India's commitment to the U20 promise necessitates a shift away from exclusionary policies, ensuring an urban future that truly embodies equality, justice, and inclusive progress.

LIDAR REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM

 

Urban Floods

What is Urban Flooding:

Urban flooding refers to the inundation of land or built-up areas, particularly in densely populated locations such as cities, due to excessive rainfall that surpasses the capabilities of drainage systems to handle the water.

Urban flooding is a major problem in many parts of the world and it is the leading cause of global flood losses.

How urban flooding is different from rural flooding:

Flood intensity: Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to developed catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times.

Vulnerability: As urban areas are densely populated; people are more vulnerable to flooding and secondary effect of exposure to infection.

Economic impact: Urban areas being centers of economic activities have key infrastructure that has a bearing on national and global economy.

Causes of Urban Floods:

Meteorological factors:

Heavy rainfall: Intense and prolonged rainfall events can overwhelm the capacity of urban drainage systems to handle the volume of water, leading to floods.

Cyclonic storms and thunderstorms: They can bring heavy rainfall, strong winds, and intense downpours, resulting in rapid runoff leading to urban flooding.

Climate change: Climate change has resulted in extreme weather events, exacerbating the frequency of heavy rainfall episodes characterized by short durations.

Hydrological factors:

Overbank flow channel networks: The presence or absence of well-designed and maintained drainage systems, such as canals, rivers, and stormwater channels, affects the capacity of an area to handle excess water during heavy rainfall.

High tides in coastal cities: Coastal cities face additional challenges, as high tides can impede the drainage of rainfall water into the ocean or other bodies of water. This can cause water to back up and flood urban areas.

Anthropogenic Factors:

Land use changes and urbanization: Extensive urbanization and land use changes, such as replacing natural surfaces with impermeable materials like concrete and asphalt, reduce the land’s ability to absorb rainfall. This increases surface runoff and the risk of urban flooding.

Example: Chennai Floods 2015 – The rapid and unplanned urbanization in Chennai, particularly the conversion of wetlands and water bodies into built-up areas, played a significant role in exacerbating the flooding.

Occupation of floodplains and obstruction of flood flows: Building structures in flood-prone areas or obstructing natural watercourses can disrupt the natural flow of water during heavy rainfall events. This can cause water to accumulate and lead to flooding.

Example: Mumbai Floods 2005 – The flood event in Mumbai was partly attributed to the occupation of floodplains and the obstruction of flood flows due to encroachments and improper land use.

Urban heat island effect: Urban areas often experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas, creating what is known as the urban heat island effect. This can influence weather patterns and increase localized rainfall, which can contribute to urban flooding.

Dam operations: Sudden releases of water from upstream dams can result in a surge of water downstream, overwhelming urban areas. Conversely, failure to release water from dams during heavy rainfall can cause a backwater effect, where water cannot flow freely, leading to flooding.

Example: Uttarakhand Floods 2013 – The devastating flood event in Uttarakhand was exacerbated by the sudden release of water from dams located upstream. Heavy rainfall combined with the release of water from dams caused flash floods and landslides, resulting in significant loss of life and infrastructure damage in the region.

Improper waste disposal: Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste, such as garbage and debris, into urban water drains and channels can clog the drainage system. This obstruction impedes the flow of water during the monsoon season and increases the likelihood of urban flooding.

Example: Bengaluru Floods 2017 – The improper disposal of solid waste, particularly the clogging of stormwater drains with garbage and debris, contributed to urban flooding in Bengaluru.

Illegal Mining Activities: Illegal mining of river sand and quartzite for use in building construction deplete the natural bed of the rivers and lakes. It causes soil erosion and reduces the water retention capacity of the waterbody increasing the speed and scale of water flow.

Impacts of Urban Flooding:

Loss of Life and Property: Urban flooding poses a direct threat to human life and can result in casualties and injuries. It also leads to damage and destruction of buildings, infrastructure, and personal property.

Disruption of City Functions: Urban flooding can damage water supply systems, sewerage networks, power transmission lines, communication networks, transportation infrastructure (roads and railways), and other essential services.

Environmental Impact: The force of floodwaters can uproot trees, destroy vegetation, and lead to soil erosion. It also washes pollutants, debris, and waste into rivers and other water bodies, harming aquatic ecosystems and contributing to water pollution.

Health Impacts: Urban flooding increases the risk of waterborne diseases and the spread of infections. Contaminated floodwater can carry pathogens, chemicals, and pollutants that pose health hazards to humans and animals.

Psychological Impacts: loss of shelter, personal belongings, and the trauma of witnessing the destruction and potential loss of lives can lead to long-lasting emotional distress and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Urban Flood Risk in India:

There has been an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past several years whereby major cities in India have been severely affected.

Recent events of urban floods include Chennai floods of 2015 Mumbai floods of 2017, Guwahati floods of 2010, Bengaluru floods 2017 and Hyderabad floods of 2020.

There will be a rise in the frequency of floods in India due to rise in temperatures between 2070 and 2100, according to Climate Change and India: A 4×4 Assessment, a report by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forest.

Regions susceptible to floods, according to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), lie mostly along the Ganga-Brahmaputra river basin, from the northern states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, covering Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and stretching to Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in the northeast.

The coastal states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, parts of Telangana and Gujarat also witness yearly floods, NDMA observed.

National Disaster Management (NDMA) Guidelines on Urban Flood Management:

In 2010, NDMA had issued guidelines on Urban Flood Management in India:

✓ Create a National Hydro-meteorological Network.

✓ The guidelines say that for providing early warning, the Central Water Commission (CWC) should maximize the real-time hydro-meteorological network to cover all urban centres to effectively deal with the problem of urban flooding.

✓ Use of Doppler Weather Radars to be expanded to cover all urban areas in the country.

✓ An inventory of the existing stormwater drainage system to be prepared. The inventory will be both watershed-based and ward-based.

✓ Catchment to be the basis for planning and designing the stormwater drainage systems in all ULBs (Urban Local Bodies).

✓ All future road and rail bridges in cities crossing drain to be designed such that they do not block the flows resulting in backwater effect.

✓ Every building in an urban area must have rainwater harvesting as an integral component of the building utility.

✓ Low-lying areas in cities have to be reserved for parks and other low-impact human activities.

✓ Encroachments on the drain should attract penal action.

✓ Pre-monsoon desilting of all major drains to be completed by March 31 each year.

✓ Urban Flooding has to be dealt as a separate disaster, de-linking it from riverine floods which affect the rural areas.

✓ Suitable interventions in the drainage system like traps, trash racks can be provided to reduce the amount of solid waste going into the storm sewers.

✓ Inlets to be provided on the roads to drain water to the roadside drains and these have to be designed based on current national and international practices.

✓ Concept of Rain Gardens to be incorporated in planning for public parks and on-site stormwater management for larger colonies and sites that are to be developed.

✓ Flood hazard assessments should be done on the basis of projected future scenarios of intensities and duration of the rainfall and land-use changes.

Way Forward:

Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Develop climate-resilient infrastructure that can withstand extreme weather events and effectively manage water runoff. This includes incorporating green infrastructure, such as bioswales, permeable pavements, and rooftop gardens, which can absorb and store rainwater.

Early Warning Systems and Communication: Establish robust early warning systems that utilize advanced technologies to disseminate flood warnings in real-time. This helps residents and authorities to take necessary precautions and evacuate if required.

Developing Sponge Cities: The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which falls upon it. The approach aims to enhance the capacity of cities to absorb, store, and utilize rainwater to mitigate flood risks and improve water resource management.

Urban Drainage Systems: Implement proper watershed management and develop emergency drainage plans. Regular maintenance and cleaning of drains and stormwater channels are essential to ensure smooth water flow and prevent blockages caused by solid waste and debris.

Conservation of Water Bodies: Protect and restore urban water bodies like lakes, tanks, and ponds, as they play a crucial role in managing urban flooding. These water bodies can act as natural retention basins, reducing stormwater runoff and preventing flooding.

Role of Science and Technology: This includes the use of predictive precipitation modeling, geospatial frameworks for vulnerability assessments, and innovative tools for analyzing and planning effective flood management strategies.

Urban planning with nature-based solutions: urban flood management in India continues to focus only on improving grey infrastructure, rescue & relief, instead of building solutions to increase flood resilience. Therefore, urban planning should adopt a hybrid approach of integrated green and grey infrastructure solutions.

Urbanization Process and Urban Systems

Demographic, Economic and Social Aspects:

The term urbanization is generally explained as the process by which large numbers of people start permanently residing in particular areas resulting in the formation of towns and cities. It thus refers to the shift of population from rural to urban areas, the corresponding increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change in terms of social, economic and political processes. Though there is substantial debate on what constitutes urban, most of the time it is explained in terms of demographics and functional aspects. The definition of ‘urban’ varies with time and country. The United States, for instance, uses “urban place” to mean any locality where more than 2,500 people live. In Peru the term is applied to population centres with 100 or more dwellings. In India according to 2011 census of India the definition of ‘Úrban Area’ refers to the following aspects:

i) All places with a municipal corporations, municipalities, municipal committees, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc. referred to as Statutory Towns of the concerned State/UT Government, irrespective of their demographic characteristics as reckoned on 31st December 2009.

ii) All other places which satisfied the following criteria:

a) A minimum population of 5,000;

b) At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and

c) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

Demographic aspects: 

The location of settlements governed by favourble physical settings results in changing its demographic concentrations. Population growth is rapid with natural increase as well as age-and sex selective male working immigrant population. This is well marked in major industrial towns of India while in western countries where areas of light manufacturing and service industries are marked by predominance of women labor force. The resultant effect is marked by high population densities over the period in these urban centers. Birth rates are generally lower in these towns with few exceptional towns.

Economic aspects: 

In terms of organization of Economic activities in the settlement reflected through the nature of production processes, distribution and exchange through types of market and financial institutions that evolved. Dependency levels are relatively lower. Living standards are comparatively higher than its rural counterpart. Economic activities are more complex with diversification and specialization.

Social Aspects: 

In view of Social aspects it is reflected in terms of structuring of social- cultural tradition such as religion, language and lifestyle. Specialization in professional and technical services determined by literacy and educational standards etc. Higher literacy levels, better opportunities and availability of recreational facilities are marked features of these urban centers.

Political aspects: 

In terms exercising its political power represented through governance, rules and regulations, territorial limits for movement of people and trade, defense agreements and political barriers etc.

Basic Civic amenities: 

Better and higher Educational facilities, supply of water and power, sanitation and sewer systems, open green spaces, gardens and playgrounds, recreational facilities are most additional factors of attraction for immigration of urban centers.

Infra-structure facilities: 

In terms of network of transport and communication systems these are well developed and relatively cheaper, frequent, fast and comfortable in urban areas.

    Thus the urban centers are heterogeneous and complex towns in term of demographic composition, economic and social structure. 

Urban Transformation

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) organised an event to commemorate 6 years of the three transformative Urban Missions vis. Smart Cities Mission (SCM), Atal Mission for Urban Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U).

Urbanization is a form of social transformation from traditional rural societies to modern urban communities. Urban transformation expresses entire strategies and actions used to improve the economic, social, physical, and environmental conditions of damaged and collapsed urban areas by comprehensive and integrated approaches. For example, in Pune, India's first worker-owned waste-pickers’ cooperative is helping to create an efficient waste-collection system that reaches more residents and showing cities how to incorporate informal workers into a modern economy.

The approach of urban transformation becomes important due to following reasons: 

Population growth: The population of Indian towns is expected to increase from 282 million to 590 million in the next 20 years. By 2050 the proportion living in urban areas is expected to reach 66%. 

Employment opportunities: Due to industrialisation, majority of people migrate into urban areas to seek a better livelihood as ample job opportunities in cities are available in all developmental sectors such as public health, education, transport, sports and recreation etc. 

Economic growth: India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world, and its high economic growth is due to expansion of towns and cities. Indian cities are likely to contribute to 70% of India’s GDP by 2030. 

Sustainable development: The urban transformation puts the cities on a central stage for accelerating change towards local and global sustainability and resilience which are enshrined in the 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

challenges in effecting urban transformation:

Institutional:

✓74th amendment act has been implemented half-heartedly by the states which has not fully empowered the Urban local bodies (ULBs) functionally and financially. 

✓ Public monopoly, organizational inefficiency, technical flaws in the form of high leakages, lack of preventive maintenance, poor accounting as well as over staffing and lack of autonomy have led to failure of the public sector to provide adequate service delivery. 

✓State and national planning institutions lack qualified planning professional. o Lack a modern planning framework (decentralised planning) which limits effective land utilisation and cities’ abilities to grow in accordance with changing needs. 

✓Growing trend of declining ratio of revenue generation with the ULBs.

Infrastructural: 

✓ The rapid growth of urban population by natural and migration ways has put heavy pressure on public utilities like housing, sanitation, transport, water, electricity, health, education and so on. 

✓ Lack of investment in urban infrastructure and capacity building. 

✓ Despite high economic growth, India cities are the centres of high income inequality and poor quality of life. In 2019, New Delhi and Mumbai ranked 118th and 119th respectively, on the Global Liveability Index that covered 140 cities.

Environmental: 

✓ Urban areas are at higher risk to floods, earthquakes owing to low density and overcrowding. Urban areas are becoming heat islands, rising air and groundwater pollution and persistent water crisis. 

✓ Example, pollution in Delhi, floods in Mumbai and Chennai indicate poor urban planning and management. 

Social: 

✓ Issues of lack of resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty, and lack of social services and education habitually lead to many social problems and crimes including violence, drug abuse, human trafficking, sexual assault, child labour etc.

Other recently taken steps to further strengthen above missions:

Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework (CSCAF) 2.0:

It aims to provide an overarching roadmap to formulate, implement and monitor urban climate actions in India. o CSCAF 2.0 consists of 28 diverse indicators across five sectors. 

Data Maturity Assessment Framework 2.0: 

Every year, the Smart Cities are being ranked so that Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) continue to invest in developing and strengthening their data ecosystems.  It assess the data readiness of 100 smart cities on the systematic pillars across 5 components namely policy, people, process, technology and outcomes.

ICT initiatives under Smart Cities: 

ICCC Maturity Assessment framework (IMAF): It is a self-assessment tool kit developed to assess the maturity of Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCC) across key aspects of functionality, technology, governance and citizen/stakeholders engagement. It helps cities identify areas of improvement in their ICCCs to deliver better services to the citizens. 

Smart City ICT standards: It facilitates interoperability between products in a multi-vendor, multinetwork and multi-service environment that exists in a smart city.

India Smart Cities Fellows Report: 

It promotes youth leadership and usher vibrancy in the design of India’s urban future. 

 TULIP (The Urban Learning Internship Program) Report:

It is a platform to connect graduates to ULBs and Smart Cities to co-create new solutions for our cities. o It was launched in partnership with All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE). 

NIUA (National Institute of Urban Affairs) Knowledge products: 

CITIIS (City Investments to Innovate, Integrate and Sustain) Program: It was launched in partnership with the French Development Agency and the European Union in 2018. It has a novel approach of developing demonstrative projects while furthering the agenda of sustainability and innovation in urban infrastructure. 

Handbook of Urban Statistics: It is the first of its kind document with a special focus on Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) in Indian cities. It captures the data related to the nature and cause of disability, the socio-economic condition of PwDs and their access to various physical and social infrastructures.

Cities Insights Report: It investigates urbanization trends in Indian cities from the lens of marginalized populations, persons with disabilities, elderly, children and women. This initiative is under the ‘Building Accessible Safe Inclusive Indian Cities’ (BASIIC) Programme at the NIUA, New Delhi.  NIUA is an autonomous body of MoHUA, tasked to bridge the gap between research and practice on issues related to urbanization.

Approach to accelerate urban transformation in future:

Urban governance: With cities growing beyond municipal boundaries, having fully formed metropolitan authorities with clearly defined roles will be essential for the successful management of large cities in India. 

Integrated planning and management: It should include the needs of the marginalized sections including their residence, health, water, transportation, and other amenities at affordable prices. 

Finance: Devolution must be supported by more reforms in urban financing that will reduce cities’ dependence on the Centre and the states and unleash internal revenue sources. 

Trained human resource: Special knowledge and expertise is needed in urban planning of urban areas, especially in hill states, coastal regions, riversides, and disaster vulnerable areas.