Urban Floods

What is Urban Flooding:

Urban flooding refers to the inundation of land or built-up areas, particularly in densely populated locations such as cities, due to excessive rainfall that surpasses the capabilities of drainage systems to handle the water.

Urban flooding is a major problem in many parts of the world and it is the leading cause of global flood losses.

How urban flooding is different from rural flooding:

Flood intensity: Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to developed catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times.

Vulnerability: As urban areas are densely populated; people are more vulnerable to flooding and secondary effect of exposure to infection.

Economic impact: Urban areas being centers of economic activities have key infrastructure that has a bearing on national and global economy.

Causes of Urban Floods:

Meteorological factors:

Heavy rainfall: Intense and prolonged rainfall events can overwhelm the capacity of urban drainage systems to handle the volume of water, leading to floods.

Cyclonic storms and thunderstorms: They can bring heavy rainfall, strong winds, and intense downpours, resulting in rapid runoff leading to urban flooding.

Climate change: Climate change has resulted in extreme weather events, exacerbating the frequency of heavy rainfall episodes characterized by short durations.

Hydrological factors:

Overbank flow channel networks: The presence or absence of well-designed and maintained drainage systems, such as canals, rivers, and stormwater channels, affects the capacity of an area to handle excess water during heavy rainfall.

High tides in coastal cities: Coastal cities face additional challenges, as high tides can impede the drainage of rainfall water into the ocean or other bodies of water. This can cause water to back up and flood urban areas.

Anthropogenic Factors:

Land use changes and urbanization: Extensive urbanization and land use changes, such as replacing natural surfaces with impermeable materials like concrete and asphalt, reduce the land’s ability to absorb rainfall. This increases surface runoff and the risk of urban flooding.

Example: Chennai Floods 2015 – The rapid and unplanned urbanization in Chennai, particularly the conversion of wetlands and water bodies into built-up areas, played a significant role in exacerbating the flooding.

Occupation of floodplains and obstruction of flood flows: Building structures in flood-prone areas or obstructing natural watercourses can disrupt the natural flow of water during heavy rainfall events. This can cause water to accumulate and lead to flooding.

Example: Mumbai Floods 2005 – The flood event in Mumbai was partly attributed to the occupation of floodplains and the obstruction of flood flows due to encroachments and improper land use.

Urban heat island effect: Urban areas often experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas, creating what is known as the urban heat island effect. This can influence weather patterns and increase localized rainfall, which can contribute to urban flooding.

Dam operations: Sudden releases of water from upstream dams can result in a surge of water downstream, overwhelming urban areas. Conversely, failure to release water from dams during heavy rainfall can cause a backwater effect, where water cannot flow freely, leading to flooding.

Example: Uttarakhand Floods 2013 – The devastating flood event in Uttarakhand was exacerbated by the sudden release of water from dams located upstream. Heavy rainfall combined with the release of water from dams caused flash floods and landslides, resulting in significant loss of life and infrastructure damage in the region.

Improper waste disposal: Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste, such as garbage and debris, into urban water drains and channels can clog the drainage system. This obstruction impedes the flow of water during the monsoon season and increases the likelihood of urban flooding.

Example: Bengaluru Floods 2017 – The improper disposal of solid waste, particularly the clogging of stormwater drains with garbage and debris, contributed to urban flooding in Bengaluru.

Illegal Mining Activities: Illegal mining of river sand and quartzite for use in building construction deplete the natural bed of the rivers and lakes. It causes soil erosion and reduces the water retention capacity of the waterbody increasing the speed and scale of water flow.

Impacts of Urban Flooding:

Loss of Life and Property: Urban flooding poses a direct threat to human life and can result in casualties and injuries. It also leads to damage and destruction of buildings, infrastructure, and personal property.

Disruption of City Functions: Urban flooding can damage water supply systems, sewerage networks, power transmission lines, communication networks, transportation infrastructure (roads and railways), and other essential services.

Environmental Impact: The force of floodwaters can uproot trees, destroy vegetation, and lead to soil erosion. It also washes pollutants, debris, and waste into rivers and other water bodies, harming aquatic ecosystems and contributing to water pollution.

Health Impacts: Urban flooding increases the risk of waterborne diseases and the spread of infections. Contaminated floodwater can carry pathogens, chemicals, and pollutants that pose health hazards to humans and animals.

Psychological Impacts: loss of shelter, personal belongings, and the trauma of witnessing the destruction and potential loss of lives can lead to long-lasting emotional distress and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Urban Flood Risk in India:

There has been an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past several years whereby major cities in India have been severely affected.

Recent events of urban floods include Chennai floods of 2015 Mumbai floods of 2017, Guwahati floods of 2010, Bengaluru floods 2017 and Hyderabad floods of 2020.

There will be a rise in the frequency of floods in India due to rise in temperatures between 2070 and 2100, according to Climate Change and India: A 4×4 Assessment, a report by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forest.

Regions susceptible to floods, according to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), lie mostly along the Ganga-Brahmaputra river basin, from the northern states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, covering Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and stretching to Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in the northeast.

The coastal states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, parts of Telangana and Gujarat also witness yearly floods, NDMA observed.

National Disaster Management (NDMA) Guidelines on Urban Flood Management:

In 2010, NDMA had issued guidelines on Urban Flood Management in India:

✓ Create a National Hydro-meteorological Network.

✓ The guidelines say that for providing early warning, the Central Water Commission (CWC) should maximize the real-time hydro-meteorological network to cover all urban centres to effectively deal with the problem of urban flooding.

✓ Use of Doppler Weather Radars to be expanded to cover all urban areas in the country.

✓ An inventory of the existing stormwater drainage system to be prepared. The inventory will be both watershed-based and ward-based.

✓ Catchment to be the basis for planning and designing the stormwater drainage systems in all ULBs (Urban Local Bodies).

✓ All future road and rail bridges in cities crossing drain to be designed such that they do not block the flows resulting in backwater effect.

✓ Every building in an urban area must have rainwater harvesting as an integral component of the building utility.

✓ Low-lying areas in cities have to be reserved for parks and other low-impact human activities.

✓ Encroachments on the drain should attract penal action.

✓ Pre-monsoon desilting of all major drains to be completed by March 31 each year.

✓ Urban Flooding has to be dealt as a separate disaster, de-linking it from riverine floods which affect the rural areas.

✓ Suitable interventions in the drainage system like traps, trash racks can be provided to reduce the amount of solid waste going into the storm sewers.

✓ Inlets to be provided on the roads to drain water to the roadside drains and these have to be designed based on current national and international practices.

✓ Concept of Rain Gardens to be incorporated in planning for public parks and on-site stormwater management for larger colonies and sites that are to be developed.

✓ Flood hazard assessments should be done on the basis of projected future scenarios of intensities and duration of the rainfall and land-use changes.

Way Forward:

Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Develop climate-resilient infrastructure that can withstand extreme weather events and effectively manage water runoff. This includes incorporating green infrastructure, such as bioswales, permeable pavements, and rooftop gardens, which can absorb and store rainwater.

Early Warning Systems and Communication: Establish robust early warning systems that utilize advanced technologies to disseminate flood warnings in real-time. This helps residents and authorities to take necessary precautions and evacuate if required.

Developing Sponge Cities: The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which falls upon it. The approach aims to enhance the capacity of cities to absorb, store, and utilize rainwater to mitigate flood risks and improve water resource management.

Urban Drainage Systems: Implement proper watershed management and develop emergency drainage plans. Regular maintenance and cleaning of drains and stormwater channels are essential to ensure smooth water flow and prevent blockages caused by solid waste and debris.

Conservation of Water Bodies: Protect and restore urban water bodies like lakes, tanks, and ponds, as they play a crucial role in managing urban flooding. These water bodies can act as natural retention basins, reducing stormwater runoff and preventing flooding.

Role of Science and Technology: This includes the use of predictive precipitation modeling, geospatial frameworks for vulnerability assessments, and innovative tools for analyzing and planning effective flood management strategies.

Urban planning with nature-based solutions: urban flood management in India continues to focus only on improving grey infrastructure, rescue & relief, instead of building solutions to increase flood resilience. Therefore, urban planning should adopt a hybrid approach of integrated green and grey infrastructure solutions.

Green Buildings

Green Building is a sustainable building with high efficiency in resource usage (energy, water, and materials) while reducing impacts on health and environment during its lifecycle through good building practices.

A Green building is designed, constructed, and operated to minimize the total environmental impacts while enhancing user comfort, and productivity”.  Green buildings preserve precious natural resources and improve our quality of life.

A green building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency, conserves natural resources, generates less waste and provides healthier spaces for occupants, as compared to a conventional building. 

There are a number of features that can make a building ‘green’. These include:

✓ Efficient use of energy, water, and other resources.

✓ Use of renewable energy, such as solar energy.

✓ Pollution and waste reduction measures, and the enabling of re-use and recycling.

✓ Good indoor environmental air quality.

✓ Use of materials that are non-toxic, ethical, and sustainable.

✓ Consideration of the environment in design, construction, and operation

✓ Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design, construction, and operation.

✓ A design that enables adaptation to a changing environment.

Urbanization Process and Urban Systems

Demographic, Economic and Social Aspects:

The term urbanization is generally explained as the process by which large numbers of people start permanently residing in particular areas resulting in the formation of towns and cities. It thus refers to the shift of population from rural to urban areas, the corresponding increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change in terms of social, economic and political processes. Though there is substantial debate on what constitutes urban, most of the time it is explained in terms of demographics and functional aspects. The definition of ‘urban’ varies with time and country. The United States, for instance, uses “urban place” to mean any locality where more than 2,500 people live. In Peru the term is applied to population centres with 100 or more dwellings. In India according to 2011 census of India the definition of ‘Úrban Area’ refers to the following aspects:

i) All places with a municipal corporations, municipalities, municipal committees, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc. referred to as Statutory Towns of the concerned State/UT Government, irrespective of their demographic characteristics as reckoned on 31st December 2009.

ii) All other places which satisfied the following criteria:

a) A minimum population of 5,000;

b) At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and

c) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

Demographic aspects: 

The location of settlements governed by favourble physical settings results in changing its demographic concentrations. Population growth is rapid with natural increase as well as age-and sex selective male working immigrant population. This is well marked in major industrial towns of India while in western countries where areas of light manufacturing and service industries are marked by predominance of women labor force. The resultant effect is marked by high population densities over the period in these urban centers. Birth rates are generally lower in these towns with few exceptional towns.

Economic aspects: 

In terms of organization of Economic activities in the settlement reflected through the nature of production processes, distribution and exchange through types of market and financial institutions that evolved. Dependency levels are relatively lower. Living standards are comparatively higher than its rural counterpart. Economic activities are more complex with diversification and specialization.

Social Aspects: 

In view of Social aspects it is reflected in terms of structuring of social- cultural tradition such as religion, language and lifestyle. Specialization in professional and technical services determined by literacy and educational standards etc. Higher literacy levels, better opportunities and availability of recreational facilities are marked features of these urban centers.

Political aspects: 

In terms exercising its political power represented through governance, rules and regulations, territorial limits for movement of people and trade, defense agreements and political barriers etc.

Basic Civic amenities: 

Better and higher Educational facilities, supply of water and power, sanitation and sewer systems, open green spaces, gardens and playgrounds, recreational facilities are most additional factors of attraction for immigration of urban centers.

Infra-structure facilities: 

In terms of network of transport and communication systems these are well developed and relatively cheaper, frequent, fast and comfortable in urban areas.

    Thus the urban centers are heterogeneous and complex towns in term of demographic composition, economic and social structure. 

National Urban planning Conclave Creating Sustainable Cities

Data and Technology to drive Liveable Cities

 

Urban Transformation

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) organised an event to commemorate 6 years of the three transformative Urban Missions vis. Smart Cities Mission (SCM), Atal Mission for Urban Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U).

Urbanization is a form of social transformation from traditional rural societies to modern urban communities. Urban transformation expresses entire strategies and actions used to improve the economic, social, physical, and environmental conditions of damaged and collapsed urban areas by comprehensive and integrated approaches. For example, in Pune, India's first worker-owned waste-pickers’ cooperative is helping to create an efficient waste-collection system that reaches more residents and showing cities how to incorporate informal workers into a modern economy.

The approach of urban transformation becomes important due to following reasons: 

Population growth: The population of Indian towns is expected to increase from 282 million to 590 million in the next 20 years. By 2050 the proportion living in urban areas is expected to reach 66%. 

Employment opportunities: Due to industrialisation, majority of people migrate into urban areas to seek a better livelihood as ample job opportunities in cities are available in all developmental sectors such as public health, education, transport, sports and recreation etc. 

Economic growth: India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world, and its high economic growth is due to expansion of towns and cities. Indian cities are likely to contribute to 70% of India’s GDP by 2030. 

Sustainable development: The urban transformation puts the cities on a central stage for accelerating change towards local and global sustainability and resilience which are enshrined in the 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

challenges in effecting urban transformation:

Institutional:

✓74th amendment act has been implemented half-heartedly by the states which has not fully empowered the Urban local bodies (ULBs) functionally and financially. 

✓ Public monopoly, organizational inefficiency, technical flaws in the form of high leakages, lack of preventive maintenance, poor accounting as well as over staffing and lack of autonomy have led to failure of the public sector to provide adequate service delivery. 

✓State and national planning institutions lack qualified planning professional. o Lack a modern planning framework (decentralised planning) which limits effective land utilisation and cities’ abilities to grow in accordance with changing needs. 

✓Growing trend of declining ratio of revenue generation with the ULBs.

Infrastructural: 

✓ The rapid growth of urban population by natural and migration ways has put heavy pressure on public utilities like housing, sanitation, transport, water, electricity, health, education and so on. 

✓ Lack of investment in urban infrastructure and capacity building. 

✓ Despite high economic growth, India cities are the centres of high income inequality and poor quality of life. In 2019, New Delhi and Mumbai ranked 118th and 119th respectively, on the Global Liveability Index that covered 140 cities.

Environmental: 

✓ Urban areas are at higher risk to floods, earthquakes owing to low density and overcrowding. Urban areas are becoming heat islands, rising air and groundwater pollution and persistent water crisis. 

✓ Example, pollution in Delhi, floods in Mumbai and Chennai indicate poor urban planning and management. 

Social: 

✓ Issues of lack of resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty, and lack of social services and education habitually lead to many social problems and crimes including violence, drug abuse, human trafficking, sexual assault, child labour etc.

Other recently taken steps to further strengthen above missions:

Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework (CSCAF) 2.0:

It aims to provide an overarching roadmap to formulate, implement and monitor urban climate actions in India. o CSCAF 2.0 consists of 28 diverse indicators across five sectors. 

Data Maturity Assessment Framework 2.0: 

Every year, the Smart Cities are being ranked so that Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) continue to invest in developing and strengthening their data ecosystems.  It assess the data readiness of 100 smart cities on the systematic pillars across 5 components namely policy, people, process, technology and outcomes.

ICT initiatives under Smart Cities: 

ICCC Maturity Assessment framework (IMAF): It is a self-assessment tool kit developed to assess the maturity of Integrated Command and Control Centres (ICCC) across key aspects of functionality, technology, governance and citizen/stakeholders engagement. It helps cities identify areas of improvement in their ICCCs to deliver better services to the citizens. 

Smart City ICT standards: It facilitates interoperability between products in a multi-vendor, multinetwork and multi-service environment that exists in a smart city.

India Smart Cities Fellows Report: 

It promotes youth leadership and usher vibrancy in the design of India’s urban future. 

 TULIP (The Urban Learning Internship Program) Report:

It is a platform to connect graduates to ULBs and Smart Cities to co-create new solutions for our cities. o It was launched in partnership with All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE). 

NIUA (National Institute of Urban Affairs) Knowledge products: 

CITIIS (City Investments to Innovate, Integrate and Sustain) Program: It was launched in partnership with the French Development Agency and the European Union in 2018. It has a novel approach of developing demonstrative projects while furthering the agenda of sustainability and innovation in urban infrastructure. 

Handbook of Urban Statistics: It is the first of its kind document with a special focus on Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) in Indian cities. It captures the data related to the nature and cause of disability, the socio-economic condition of PwDs and their access to various physical and social infrastructures.

Cities Insights Report: It investigates urbanization trends in Indian cities from the lens of marginalized populations, persons with disabilities, elderly, children and women. This initiative is under the ‘Building Accessible Safe Inclusive Indian Cities’ (BASIIC) Programme at the NIUA, New Delhi.  NIUA is an autonomous body of MoHUA, tasked to bridge the gap between research and practice on issues related to urbanization.

Approach to accelerate urban transformation in future:

Urban governance: With cities growing beyond municipal boundaries, having fully formed metropolitan authorities with clearly defined roles will be essential for the successful management of large cities in India. 

Integrated planning and management: It should include the needs of the marginalized sections including their residence, health, water, transportation, and other amenities at affordable prices. 

Finance: Devolution must be supported by more reforms in urban financing that will reduce cities’ dependence on the Centre and the states and unleash internal revenue sources. 

Trained human resource: Special knowledge and expertise is needed in urban planning of urban areas, especially in hill states, coastal regions, riversides, and disaster vulnerable areas.  

World Population Day 2023

World Population Day is commemorated every year on July 11th to raise awareness and educate individuals about the challenges and consequences associated with global population growth. It serves as a reminder to continuously work towards addressing these issues and improving the lives of everyone on the planet. The observance of World Population Day aims to promote understanding and encourage collective efforts in tackling the impacts of population growth.

World Population Day 2023-Theme:

According to United Nations, the theme for this year’s World Population Day is – Unleashing the power of gender equality: Uplifting the voices of women and girls to unlock our world’s infinite possibilities.

World Population Day 2023  - Significance:

Every year on July 11, the World Population Day event plays a significant role in bringing attention to concerns related to the world population. This day highlights the issues brought on by population growth, including poverty, a lack of food and water, environmental damage, and overburdened healthcare systems. It acts as a reminder for people, groups, and organisations, as well as for governments, to solve these urgent issues.  With the goal of building a world where every individual has a developing future full of promises, potential, and opportunities, the United Nations focuses on commemorating the day. In line with Agenda 2030's Sustainable Goals, it also seeks to build a sustainable future for everyone.

World Population Day 2023-History:

Dr K.C. Zachariah suggested celebrating this day when the world reached 5 billion population on July 11, 1987. The United Nations Development Programme’s Governing Council established World Population Day in 1989, inspired by the Day of Five Billion observed on July 11, 1987. In 1990, the United Nations General Assembly, through Resolution 45/216, decided to continue celebrating World Population Day to raise awareness about population issues and their interconnection with the environment and development.

Classification of Towns

Apart from their role as central or nodal places, many towns and cities perform specialised services. Some towns and cities specialise in certain functions and they are known for some specific activities, products or services. However, each town performs a number of functions. On the basis of dominant or specialised functions, Indian cities and towns can be broadly classified as follows:

Administrative towns and cities:

Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order are administrative towns, such as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur Chennai, etc.

Industrial towns: 

Industries constitute prime motive force of these cities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.

Transport Cities: 

They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs of inland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.

Commercial towns: 

Towns and cities specialising in trade and commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc. are some examples.

Mining towns: 

These towns have developed in mineral rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.

Garrisson Cantonment towns: 

These towns emerged as garrisson towns such as Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina, Udhampur, etc.

Educational towns:

Starting as centres of education, some of the towns have grown into major campus towns such as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, Allahabad etc.

Religious and cultural towns:

Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, Haridwar, Ujjain came to prominence due to their religious/cultural significance.

Tourist towns: 

Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.

The cities are not static in their function. The functions change due to their dynamic nature. Even specialised cities, as they grow into metropolises become multifunctional wherein industry, business, administration, transport, etc. become important. The functions get so intertwined that the city can not be categorised in a particular functional class.

Urbanization and Women

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) released a report titled ‘Cities Alive: Designing Cities That Work for Women’ Report. 

✓Cities are vital centers of innovation, productivity, and diversity, but without inclusive planning, urbanization deepens societal gaps. 

✓Among the most vulnerable are women in both wealthy and socio-economically disadvantaged urban contexts across the globe. 

✓Without a gender-responsive approach to urban planning, cities often compound gender inequalities. 

Challenges faced by women in urban space:

✓Gender biased urban planning: A cohort of mostly male planners, designers and city leaders have created urban spaces which prioritise men’s mobility, health, safety, leisure and economic wellbeing over women’s. 

✓ Prejudice: Urban spaces do not reflect and celebrate women in statues, road names and other monument, Data sources are gender-biased towards male experiences. 

✓Gender-based discrimination: Higher rates of poverty, unemployment, unpaid care duties, barriers to education, and experiences of violence and street harassment 

✓ Health and wellbeing: Sexual violence and harassment in urban public spaces adversely impacts the wellbeing, urban spaces often inadequate toilets and sanitation facilities for women. 

✓Disproportionate burden of Climate change: Women have fewer resources to withstand, and recover from, large-scale climate change-related events. 

Way ahead:

✓ Participatory urban designing: This will help making cities inclusive where whole community can access the opportunities offered by cities, and it generates wider social, economic and environmental benefits. 

✓Justice and equity: Support women participating in urban governance at all levels, Support the collection of gender disaggregated data, protect women’s right to land and property. 

✓Safety and security: Incorporate violence prevention in laws, Design spaces through a safety lens, improve lighting design in streets and public spaces, and raise awareness and share knowledge around public safety. 

✓ Health and wellbeing: Raise the standards of sexual and reproductive healthcare, provide high-quality water and sanitation facilities, create caring, green and active environments. 

✓Women leadership in climate action: improving gender equity contributes to policy and funding choices that lead to better environmental governance and make the resilience measures more effective. 

Adopting a gender-responsive approach to urban planning and design goes beyond serving only women. It ensures the whole community can access the opportunities offered by cities, and it generates wider social, economic and environmental benefits.

Lung Spaces in Cities

The vegetation in urban open spaces act as a sink for carbon dioxide. They reduce pollution and produce oxygen. They allow rain water percolation and ground water recharge in addition to facilitating storm water drainage and flood attenuation.

Other advantages provided by them to human societies include social and psychological benefits, recreation, better health, reduced stress levels and reduced depression. The air we breathe and the water we drink are the two primary elements which decide the quality of our life. Thus when the open spaces shrink the quality of life of the people also degrade. There are studies proving that people who use public open spaces enhance their physical activity and gain better physical and mental health benefits, reducing healthcare costs.

Urban vegetations in the tropical region are estimated to absorb 200-300 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year and provide a huge potential for climate change related mitigation benefits. Trees in cities help fight global warming by reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and help to cool cities.

Parks also help create human and energy efficient cities that can help slow global warming. Thus urban landscapes are to be considered for their intangible benefits than tangible or commercial benefits.

Urban greenery contributes towards a city's economy. They attract tourism and better prices for residential and commercial properties. It is a win-win situation for the authorities and citizens in creating and maintaining urban greenery. Therefore, more attention is needed to develop urban green spaces by involving NGOs and resident welfare associations.

Considering the fast pace of urbanisation in India with an estimated 241 million people in working age population supposed to seek shelter in cities in search of job opportunities and investments by 2030, enhancement of urban green spaces are one of the ways, to mitigate the adverse effects of urbanisation in a sustainable manner.

Urban green space:

Cities globally acclaimed for their urban green spaces, often have a per capita urban green space of 20 to 40% of the total geographical area. The scientifically suggested green area per capita is more than 20 m2 which is equivalent to a minimum of 1.25 ha open space per 1,000 residents.

Indian cities like Gandhinagar and Chandigarh, where the urban greenery was pre-integrated in the city master plans at the initial design phase itself have per capita green space at 160 m2 and 55 m2 respectively. It is far more as compared to traditional green cities like Bengaluru.

When the number of residents increases, the area of open space and vegetation too should correspondingly increase. If that is not feasible, people acquiring land indiscriminately in cities is to be controlled through legal measures, instead of reducing the already available urban spaces to promote real estate.

Difference Between City Planning & Regional Planning

City planning focuses on the land use plans, spatial growth and policies which are at local level (affecting that particular city or town), whereas in case of regional planning the emphasis on the policies is more. Those policies become the guidelines for the urban areas and their existing plans are modified accordingly. This helps in meeting the larger requirement of the whole region.

Regional planning is an urban planning strategy that focuses on the social, economic, and environmental development of a specific area. Regional plans address the needs of the entire region rather than just one municipality. Regional planning is something you should consider when doing urban planning. The benefits of regional planning include coordination of transportation, housing, and other public services such as police, fire departments, hospitals, and schools.

Additionally, regional plans cover more of national level policies and issues & strengthens integrated development. City planning looks as a limited area when compared to a regional plan. Regional plan covers rural areas and undeveloped areas too which are usually not covered in town plans.

The categories, chapters, topics and aspects covered in both plans also differs because of the different needs and the existing developments. Village area, forests, undeveloped land and waste land might be completely missing from a city plan whereas it forms an important part of  a regional plan.

History of Town Planning India

Perspective: Urban Planning

Urban Planning

> Urban planning is the process of designing and managing the physical and social development of cities, towns, and other urban areas.

• > It involves a range of activities, including land use planning, transportation planning, environmental planning, and community development.
• > Urban planners work to create livable and sustainable communities by balancing the needs of different stakeholders, including residents, businesses, and government agencies.
• 
  

Urban planning in India: A quick recap The first Municipal Corporation was set up in the former Presidency Town of Madras in 1688. It was followed by similar corporations in the then Bombay and Calcutta in 1726. Lord Mayo’s resolution of 1870 laid out a roadmap for these bodies in India. The ‘Magna Carta’ of local self-government is considered to be Lord Ripon’s resolution of 1882. In 1907, a royal commission, chaired by Hobhouse, was established to focus on decentralization. The Government of India Act of 1919 assigned the subject of local self-government to an Indian minister. The Cantonments Act was passed by the central legislature in 1924. Local self-government was declared a provincial subject under the Government of India Act of 1935.

Features of Urban Planning:

• Land use planning: This involves the allocation of land for various uses, such as residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational.
• Transportation planning: Planning for efficient and sustainable transportation systems, including roads, public transit, bike lanes, and pedestrian walkways.
• Housing planning: Ensuring the availability of adequate and affordable housing for all residents.
• Economic planning: Supporting economic development and growth by creating jobs, attracting investment, and providing business opportunities.
• Infrastructure planning: Developing and maintaining infrastructure, such as water supply, sanitation, and waste management systems.
• Community engagement: Involving the community in the planning process to ensure that their needs and priorities are reflected in the final plan.
• Zoning: Regulating the use of land and the placement of buildings to ensure compatibility with neighboring uses and adequate provision of open space.
• Urban design: Creating an attractive and functional built environment through thoughtful design of public spaces, buildings, and streetscapes.
• Environmental planning: Incorporating environmental considerations, such as the preservation of natural resources, reducing pollution, and promoting sustainable practices.

Urban Planning Mechanism in India:

India’s local governance system underwent a transformation in 1992 with constitutional reforms through the 73rd and 74th Amendments.

• 12th schedule: Urban planning, regulation of land use, and planning for economic and social development are the first three subjects listed in the 12th schedule.
• 74th Amendment: It empowers elected municipalities with the task of preparing and implementing plans and schemes for economic development and social justice, along with subjects listed under the 12th Schedule.
• Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC): The 74th Amendment mandates the creation of a MPC for metropolitan cities with over 1 million population, with at least two-thirds of its members to be elected local representatives, to prepare a development plan for the metropolitan area incorporating local bodies’ plans.
• Creation of master plans: These agencies prepare “master plans” that regulate land use and development across the city every 10-20 years, such as the Delhi Development Authority or the Bangalore Development Authority.
• District Development Authorities: State government-controlled DAs are primarily responsible for urban planning in most of India’s major cities, instead of municipal government or MPC.

Why is it a daunting task in India:

• Rapid urbanization: India has been witnessing rapid urbanization, with a significant population shift from rural areas to cities. This has led to unplanned and haphazard urbanization, resulting in inadequate infrastructure, lack of affordable housing, and overcrowding in cities.
• Cost of urban planning: The cost of urban planning can be substantial, especially if the plan involves the construction of new infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, public transport systems, and housing. The cost can also vary depending on the level of development, infrastructure, and services required in the city.
• Poor infrastructure: Many Indian cities lack proper infrastructure such as roads, public transport, water supply, and sewage systems. This leads to traffic congestion, pollution, and health hazards.
• Lack of open spaces: Many urban areas in India lack open spaces such as parks, playgrounds, and public spaces. This can impact the physical and mental well-being of residents, especially children and the elderly.
• Inadequate housing: The demand for affordable housing in Indian cities far exceeds the supply. This has led to the proliferation of slums and informal settlements, where living conditions are often substandard.
• Corruption: Corruption in urban planning is a significant issue in India. It leads to the allocation of resources based on political and personal considerations rather than objective criteria, resulting in inefficient use of resources and poor urban planning outcomes.
• Lack of citizen participation: Citizens’ participation in urban planning is minimal in India. Most planning decisions are made by bureaucrats and politicians, with little input from citizens. This can lead to decisions that do not reflect the needs and aspirations of the people.

Major challenges plaguing Urban Centres:

• Lack of Efficient Transport: Overcrowded roads, pollution, and increased travelling time due to the dependency on private vehicles in cities, which also contributes to climate change.
• Slums and Squatter Settlements: High cost of living in cities leads to the growth of slums as safe havens for migrants, with 35.2% of the total urban population living in slums in India, and Dharavi in Mumbai being the largest slum in Asia.
• Degradation of Environmental Quality: Congestion of people in limited spaces results in reduced air quality, contaminated water, destruction of forests and agricultural land for construction, and wastes being channelized to rivers, leading to garbage mountains outside cities.
• Sewerage Problems: Inefficient sewage facilities due to unplanned and haphazard growth of cities, with almost 78% of the sewage generated in India remaining untreated and disposed of in rivers, lakes, or sea.
• Urban Heat Island: Dense concentrations of pavement, buildings, and other surfaces in urban areas lead to increased energy costs, air pollution, and heat-related illness and mortality.
• Urban Flooding: Encroachment on lakes, wetlands, and rivers due to new developments in low-lying areas, ineffective natural drainage systems, and lack of solid waste management leading to flooding and waterlogging.
• Ineffective Functioning of ULBs: Imbalance between the powers, responsibilities, and funds assigned to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) outlined by the Constitution, resulting in their ineffective functioning due to the lack of time-bound audits and revenue dependence on the Centre and State.

Major schemes for urban planning and development:

The GOI has launched several schemes related to urban planning to address the issues faced by Indian cities. Some of the major schemes are:

• Smart Cities Mission: Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to develop 100 smart cities across India by leveraging technology and infrastructure. The mission focuses on sustainable development, citizen participation, and the use of technology to improve urban services.
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to improve basic urban infrastructure such as water supply, sewage, and transportation in cities with a population of over 100,000. The scheme focuses on improving the quality of life of citizens.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Launched in 2014, this scheme aims to achieve a clean India by promoting sanitation and hygiene. The scheme focuses on improving waste management, constructing toilets, and promoting behavioural change.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to provide affordable housing to urban poor and homeless. The scheme provides financial assistance to construct houses and promotes the use of eco-friendly and sustainable building materials.
• Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to preserve and revitalize the heritage cities in India. The scheme focuses on improving tourism infrastructure, promoting heritage tourism, and preserving cultural heritage.

Way forward:

To move forward with urban planning in a sustainable and cost-effective manner, the following steps can be taken:

• Adopt a participatory approach: Citizens’ participation is essential for effective urban planning. Cities should involve citizens, community groups, and stakeholders in the planning process, from the early stages to implementation and evaluation.
• Prioritize sustainable development: Urban planning should prioritize sustainability, including reducing carbon emissions, improving public transportation, promoting renewable energy, and preserving natural resources.
• Promote public-private partnerships: Public-private partnerships can provide resources and expertise to urban planning projects. They can also help to mobilize private investment in infrastructure and services.
• Use technology to improve planning and implementation: Urban planners can use technology to improve the accuracy and speed of planning and implementation. For example, geographic information systems (GIS) can help with mapping, data analysis, and visualization.
• Address corruption: Corruption in urban planning can lead to inefficient use of resources and poor outcomes. Cities should prioritize transparency and accountability in planning processes to reduce corruption.
• Prioritize housing: Affordable housing is essential for the well-being of citizens. Cities should prioritize the provision of affordable housing, and this can be achieved through innovative financing models, such as social housing and rent control.
• Emphasize the importance of green spaces: Green spaces such as parks, public spaces, and playgrounds are essential for the physical and mental well-being of citizens. Cities should prioritize the preservation and creation of green spaces.

Conclusion:

• By adopting these steps, urban planning can be carried out in a sustainable, cost-effective, and citizen-centric manner.
• This will help address the challenges faced by cities and create livable, vibrant, and sustainable urban environments for citizens.

Urban India - Challenges and Opportunities

By 2030, India’s urban population is expected to grow to 600 million or 40% of the national population. This population chooses urban life because cities provide opportunities for growth and self-actualization. This is particularly true of the post-industrial city and Indian cities are particularly representative of the new economy because industrialization was only concentrated in a few of the bigger metropolitan centres and older industrial townships, whereas most of urban India is engaged with other forms of economic activity. Because of the concentration of trade and commerce, knowledge-based industries and a vast informal sector, urban India has become the fulcrum of India’s growth, with 70% of National GDP expected to come from urban areas. 

It is expected that if current growth trends prevail, India will become at least a 7 trillion-dollar economy by 2030. Urbanization is inherently complex, with a variety of social, economic and governance priorities interacting through a wide range of institutions, including multiple levels of governments, industries, social groups and civil society institutions. Urban Governance is an evolving space in India with formal local self-governments being established through the 74th Amendment to the Constitution of India, 1992. The act envisaged the devolution of funds, functions and functionaries to the ‘third tier’ of governance in cities. The Urban Local Body (ULB) is the entity responsible for development, management and upkeep of cities and towns across India; however, it is severely constrained to fulfill its responsibilities and promise. The ULB suffers particularly because of a legacy of gaps in infrastructure and services and the capacity constraints that prevent it from augmenting resources and overcoming gaps. The ULB engages in symptomatic solving of immediate problems rather than addressing root causes through planned interventions and sustained investment. 

There is rapidly growing acknowledgement, at all levels of leadership and public and private sector enterprise, that cities are the centres of India’s future growth and have deep links with their regional contexts and the larger footprint of development such as energy infrastructure, water sources, transportation and food production. The Union and State governments in India are actively investing in urban development and housing through the MoHUA, which works in partnership with the State-level departments and agencies to execute its programs and missions. MoHUA also invests in municipal reform and various aspects of urban quality of life and livelihoods. 

While Indian cities are the location of its financial institutions and economic drivers, they are also centres of learning and creativity, offering a rich matrix of life to their citizens. While rural India has had a long a history of innovation, enterprise has been uniquely associated with urban India. It is predicted that the next generation of urban enterprises will be most likely dependent on digital technologies, data sciences, human ecologies mediated by advanced knowledge systems, new material sciences and new ways of managing resources and doing business. Enterprises require appropriate and vibrant ecosystems to flourish, and ecosystems require a variety of human actors, supportive environments and enabling technologies and catalyzing knowledge resources. Increasing the number of new enterprises and encouraging such ‘startups’ to flourish in Indian cities is an economic as well as social imperative, given the demographic dividend that India wishes to reap from having the largest working age population pool in the world.