Types of Urban Settlements

Depending on the size and the services available and functions rendered, urban centres are designated as town, city, million city, conurbation, megalopolis. 

Town:

The concept of ‘town’ can best be understood with reference to ‘village’. Population size is not the only criterion. Functional contrasts between towns and villages may not always be clearcut, but specific functions such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.

City:

A city may be regarded as a leading town, which has outstripped its local or regional rivals. In the words of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in fact the physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life”. Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater number of economic functions. They tend to have transport terminals, major financial institutions and regional administrative offices. When the population crosses the one million mark it is designated as a million city.

Conurbation: 

The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities. Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples. 

Megalopolis:

This Greek word meaning “great city”, was popularised by Jean Gottman (1957) and signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending, as union of conurbations. The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the best known example of a megalopolis.

Million City: 

The number of million cities in the world has been increasing as never before. London reached the million mark in 1800, followed by Paris in 1850, New York in 1860, and by 1950 there were around 80 such cities. The rate of increase in the number of million cities has been three-fold in every three decades – around 160 in 1975 to around 438 in 2005.

Empowering Urban Evolution: The Smart Cities Vision in India

The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has made a recent announcement regarding the India Smart Cities Award Contest (ISAC) 2022. This event is held as a part of the broader Smart Cities Mission (SCM). The contest has recognized and honored 66 winners across diverse categories.

Notably, Indore in Madhya Pradesh and Chandigarh have taken the lead in the ISAC 2022 awards. These cities have been acknowledged for their remarkable achievements in various aspects of urban development.

National Smart City Award:

Indore clinched the prestigious national smart city award, reflecting its remarkable strides in urban development strategies. Following closely were Surat and Agra. Indore's dedication to enhancing sanitation, water supply, and the urban environment earned it recognition as a front-runner in these critical domains.

State Award:

The state award was secured by Madhya Pradesh for its holistic approach in promoting smart city initiatives within its jurisdiction. Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan followed suit, demonstrating commendable efforts in this field.

Union Territory (UT) Award:

Chandigarh was bestowed with the UT award, acknowledging its relentless endeavors to shape itself into an exemplar of a smart city.

Other Categories:

• Coimbatore stood out in the built environment category.
• Ahmedabad excelled in the culture and Integrated Command and Control Centre (ICCC) segment.
• Jabalpur showcased its prowess in the economy category.
• Chandigarh shone in governance and mobility.
• Indore led in sanitation, water, and urban environment domains.
• Vadodara was recognized for its achievements in social aspects.
• Hubbali Dharwad claimed the top spot in the innovative idea category.
• Surat's efforts in the Covid innovation category were highly appreciated.

What is ISAC:

The ISAC acknowledges and commends cities, projects, and innovative concepts that advance sustainable development within the 100 designated smart cities. It fosters cities that are not only driving inclusive, equitable, safe, healthy, and collaborative urban environments but also elevating the overall quality of life for their residents.

Having been held three times previously in 2018, 2019, and 2020, the fourth edition of ISAC was inaugurated in April 2022 during the 'Smart Cities-Smart Urbanization' event in Surat, Gujarat.

The ISAC 2022 awards incorporated a dual-phase submission process. The first phase, termed the 'Qualifying Stage,' encompassed a comprehensive evaluation of each city's overall performance. Subsequently, the 'Proposal Stage' required smart cities to nominate themselves for recognition in six distinct award categories.

These categories encompassed:

• Project Awards with ten diverse themes,
• Innovation Awards spanning two distinct themes,
• National/Zonal City Awards,
• State Awards,
• UT (Union Territory) Award, and
• Partners Awards with three varied themes.

Smart City Mission:

The Smart Cities Mission is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme that was launched in June 2015 with the objective of transforming 100 cities in India by providing essential core infrastructure and creating a clean and sustainable environment. This transformation is achieved through the implementation of "Smart Solutions" to ensure a decent quality of life for the citizens. The mission's primary focus is to fulfill the aspirations of India's urban population by undertaking various urban development projects.

Key Features:

• Area-Based Development: The mission's strategic components include area-based development, which involves retrofitting, redevelopment, and greenfield development to enhance cities. Additionally, a pan-city initiative is applied to cover larger parts of the city with smart solutions.
• Focus Areas: The scheme prioritizes the construction of amenities such as walkways, pedestrian crossings, cycling tracks, efficient waste management systems, integrated traffic management, and assessment mechanisms.
• Indices Tracking: The Smart Cities Mission evaluates multiple indices to monitor urban development progress. These indices include the Ease of Living Index, Municipal Performance Index, City GDP framework, and Climate Smart Cities assessment framework.

Achievements:

• Integrated Command and Control Centers (ICCC): One of the major achievements of the mission is the establishment of ICCC in all 100 smart cities. These centers act as operational hubs for urban management, utilizing technology to enhance various aspects of city operations. ICCCs have notably improved crime tracking, citizen safety, transport management, waste management, water supply, and disaster preparedness.
• Sectoral Progress: The Smart Cities Mission encompasses projects across various sectors, including mobility, energy, water, sanitation, public spaces, social infrastructure, and governance.
• Smart Mobility: Completion of 1,174 projects.
• Smart Energy: Successful completion of 573 projects.
• Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH): Over 1,162 projects completed.
• Public Spaces: Development of more than 1,063 public spaces.

The Smart Cities Mission is a significant initiative aimed at transforming urban areas in India into more efficient, livable, and sustainable environments through innovative technological interventions and holistic urban planning.

The India Smart Cities Award Contest (ISAC) 2022 stands as a testament to the remarkable strides made in urban development through the Smart Cities Mission. The recognition of cities, projects, and innovative ideas that foster sustainable growth is a vital step towards creating inclusive, equitable, and thriving urban environments. As we celebrate the accomplishments of Indore, Chandigarh, and other cities, we are reminded that the journey towards smart cities is a collective effort, rooted in the core principles of progress, innovation, and collaboration. With initiatives like ISAC and the broader Smart Cities Mission, India continues to pave the way towards a future where urban areas are not only technologically advanced but also enriched with quality of life for all its citizens. This positive trajectory promises to shape our cities into vibrant hubs of creativity, efficiency, and well-being.

Climate Change, Disaster risks to be included in Town Planning Act

 

Sponge city

A “sponge city” is an urban initiative that employs nature-based solutions like permeable surfaces, canals, ponds, and wetland restoration to enhance water absorption, drainage, and flood resilience. The goal is to mitigate waterlogging and urban flooding caused by rapid urbanization and impermeable surfaces.

The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which falls upon it. Sponge cities absorb the rain water, which is then naturally filtered by the soil and allowed to reach urban aquifers.

It allows for the extraction of water from the ground through urban or peri-urban wells. This water can be treated easily and used for city water supply. In built form, this implies contiguous open green spaces, interconnected waterways, and channels and ponds across neighborhoods that can naturally detain and filter water. It implies support for urban ecosystems, bio-diversity and newer cultural and recreational opportunities.

These can all be delivered effectively through an urban mission along the lines of the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) and Smart Cities Mission.

The shallow ends surrounding the water bodies in the cities need to be protected from encroachment. Regardless of ownership of these areas, land use on even this small scale needs to be regulated by development control.

Watershed management and emergency drainage plan should be clearly enunciated in policy and law. Urban watersheds are micro ecological drainage systems, shaped by contours of terrain.

Detailed documentation of these must be held by agencies which are not bound by municipal jurisdictions; instead, we need to consider natural boundaries such as watersheds instead of governance boundaries like electoral wards for shaping a drainage plan.

To improve the city’s capacity to absorb water, new porous materials and technologies must be encouraged or mandated across scales. Examples of these technologies are bioswales and retention systems, permeable material for roads and pavement, drainage systems which allow storm water to trickle into the ground, green roofs and harvesting systems in buildings. These not only reduce run-off and the load on infrastructure, but also help keep water in the city for later use.

Issues with the “Sponge City”:

Rapid urbanization and concrete development have compromised natural water absorption, leading to waterlogging and floods. Despite the initiative, many cities remain vulnerable to flooding. Limitations include the inability of sponge city infrastructure to handle extreme rainfall events and the need to catch up with the impacts of climate change in less-developed regions.

U20 Summit Highlights : Urban Governance Challenges and Promises in India

• The recent Urban 20 (U20) summit held in Ahmedabad on July 7 and 8, 2023, has brought attention to India's urban governance and politics, offering an opportunity for introspection and improvement.
• The U20 summit, established in 2018 to facilitate discussions among G20 member countries on urban issues, presented recommendations for the upcoming G20 Heads of State and Government Summit scheduled for September 9 and 10. As Ahmedabad takes the helm of U20 leadership, the city's achievements and challenges in urban development come to the fore, prompting reflection on the country's own urban landscape.

• Urban local body Success Stories

• Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation: Ahmedabad stands as a compelling example of successful infrastructural development in the Global South. The city's implementation of innovative and liberal urban planning policies has led to notable achievements. Ahmedabad's adept management of urban expansion and execution of challenging large-scale public projects demonstrate the potential of effective urban governance.
• The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) has executed numerous innovative measures aimed at enhancing the quality of life for its residents. Among these initiatives is the Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited (AJL), a collaborative effort between the public and private sectors that operates a network of bus rapid transit corridors.
• Pune Municipal Corporation: The Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) has gained recognition for its effective waste management strategies. These include the implementation of a door-to-door waste collection system and the establishment of a facility dedicated to waste segregation and processing.
• Surat Municipal Corporation: The Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) has leveraged technology to drive progress in infrastructure projects and has set up a centralized control room to manage emergency situations. Additionally, the SMC has focused on crafting pedestrian-friendly streets and creating multiple public parks.

• Historical Evolution of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India

  The concept of urban local bodies in India has a rich historical legacy dating back to ancient times. In ancient Indian cities, local councils and committees were responsible for maintaining order, regulating trade, and providing essential public services like water supply and waste management. During the British colonial period, elected municipal councils were introduced, with Madras (now Chennai) witnessing the establishment of the first municipal corporation in 1688. Post-independence, India retained the system of local self-government but made significant amendments, including the recognition of ULBs as a tier of government through the 74th Amendment in 1992. Today, ULBs play a pivotal role in urban development and citizen well-being.

  Current Structure of Urban Local Governance in India:

  Urban local governance in India encompasses a diverse range of bodies. Municipal Corporations manage metropolitan cities with populations exceeding one million, operating under the Mayor-in-Council system. Municipal Councils oversee intermediate cities and follow the President-in-Council model. Smaller towns are managed by Nagar Panchayats, functioning under the Chairperson-in-Council structure. Additionally, special-purpose ULBs such as Port Trusts and Industrial Development Authorities address specific urban development projects. This multi-tiered framework ensures tailored governance approaches based on the scale and needs of urban areas.

  Constitutional and Legal Framework for ULBs

  The foundation of ULBs' functioning is enshrined in the Constitution of India and statutory laws at both the national and state levels. Part IXA and the 12th Schedule of the Constitution focus on "Municipalities," outlining their establishment and composition. State Municipal Acts, unique to each state, provide the legal groundwork for ULBs' operations, detailing their composition, powers, functions, and administrative and financial protocols. The Metro Railways Act of 1978 addresses the development and maintenance of rapid transit systems in metropolitan cities, emphasizing the importance of efficient urban infrastructure.

  Challenges and Strengthening of ULBs

  ULBs in India confront several challenges that impact their effectiveness. Limited financial resources, dependence on higher government levels for decision-making, and inadequate public participation hamper their ability to address citizens' needs comprehensively. To strengthen ULBs, empowering decentralization is crucial. Granting them greater autonomy and decision-making power, coupled with enhanced financial management, can enable efficient service delivery. Capacity-building initiatives, improved transparency, collaborative governance, and increased public involvement can fortify ULBs, enhancing their ability to manage urban complexities and improve citizens' quality of life.

  Why focus on urban development?

  • Today, more than half of the global population lives in cities, and it is estimated that cities will host two-thirds of all people by 2050. Cities also consume over 75% of the world’s energy, generate 75% of related emissions, and they are experiencing the impacts of climate change first-hand.
  • However, with millions of people living in dense urban areas, cities are also most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, disasters, environmental degradation, resource depletion, chaotic growth, and socio-economic inequality.
  • It is, therefore, the right time to utilize the potential of urbanization as a catalyst to drive the ‘right’ kind of growth that is sustainable, inclusive, and equitable.

  Challenges of Exclusionary Urban Governance

  • However, Ahmedabad also serves as a case study in exclusionary urban governance. The city's socio-legal landscape is marked by communal segregation, where areas predominantly occupied by minority and underprivileged caste communities face governmental neglect. Unique legislation like the Disturbed Areas Act in Gujarat perpetuates this exclusion, inhibiting property exchange and deepening social divisions.

  U20 Communique's Promising Vision

  • The U20 summit published a Communique outlining recommendations for inclusive and sustainable urban development. Emphasizing environmentally responsible behaviors, water security, climate finance acceleration, local culture and economy empowerment, urban governance and planning reinvention, and digital urban futures catalysis, the Communique aims to address both environmental and social challenges.

  Gaps and Contradictions in U20's Vision

  • Despite its promising agenda, the U20 Communique falls short in addressing critical issues like Gujarat's Disturbed Areas Act and the politics of urban exclusion. While advocating for equality and justice in urban development, the Communique fails to acknowledge the socio-religious divisions perpetuated by such laws. Recent trends, including communal tensions and the criminalization of public religious activities in some Indian cities, contrast with the Communique's calls for equitable public spaces.

  Importance of Learning from Fellow Members

  • The participation of mayors from member countries like Argentina and the USA, who have demonstrated efficient and equitable urban development, underscores the importance of learning from fellow members. India should heed these recommendations and reflect on its urban governance against the backdrop of the U20 Communique.

  Opportunity for Self-Reflection

  • The upcoming G20 meet, for which the U20 has provided recommendations, serves as a crucial juncture for India to assess its own urban governance and politics. Over the past two decades, India has shown enthusiasm for planned urban development. However, the persistence of communal narratives and segregation has hindered inclusive progress. The U20 Communique's vision can guide India's efforts toward equitable and inclusive urban growth.

  Conclusion

  As Ahmedabad hosts the U20 summit, India's urban governance and politics come under scrutiny. The summit's recommendations offer a promising vision for inclusive and sustainable urban development. Yet, challenges like the Disturbed Areas Act and communal tensions highlight the need for comprehensive and holistic reform. India's commitment to the U20 promise necessitates a shift away from exclusionary policies, ensuring an urban future that truly embodies equality, justice, and inclusive progress.

City Investments to Innovate, Integrate and Sustain 2.0 (CITIIS 2.0)

Objective:

✓ Promote circular economy practices and integrated waste management at the city level.

✓ Implement climate-oriented reform actions at the state level.

Strengthen institutions and disseminate knowledge at the national level.

✓ Period of Scheme – The scheme will be implemented from 2023 to 2027 for a period of 4 years.

Components:

✓ Financial and technical support for climate resilience projects in 18 smart cities.

✓ Support for states and union territories in establishing climate centers, data observatories, and capacity building.

✓ Interventions to enhance climate governance at the central, state, and city levels.

Collaboration with:

✓ French Development Agency (AFD),

✓ Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW),

✓ European Union (EU), and

✓ the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA)

Funding:

✓ Loan of Rs. 1,760 crore (EUR 200 million) from AFD and KfW.

✓ Technical assistance grant of Rs. 106 crore (EUR 12 million) from the EU.

Impact:

✓ Complements India's climate initiatives and contributes to sustainable habitat, urban development, and cleanliness missions.

✓ Aligns with India's commitments under INDCs and COP26.

Disaster Management - Flood Fued

✓ The devastating floods across North India have renewed attention on the dynamic between climate change, urbanisation, and the infrastructural lacunae that bedevil India’s large cities. 

✓ India is now right in the middle of the monsoon and it is only to be expected, given the topography of the hill States, that extended rains will cause landslips, landslides and pose extreme threats to life and property. 

✓ Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Delhi are among the States that have reported record rainfall and at least 60 deaths have been confirmed though the actual toll may be higher. However, it is the inundation of Delhi, a city that is not usually associated with rains, that has brought to national focus the disasters that lie in store. 

✓ In the terminology of the India Meteorological Department, Delhi received ‘excess’ and ‘large excess’ rain on five out of eight days, from July 3-10. On July 9, it recorded 221.4 mm of rain, more than the 209.7 mm that is the average for all of July. 

✓ While this contributed to the flooding, rainfall in the last few days has dramatically reduced. And yet, large parts of the city which include iconic landmarks such as the Red Fort and the Supreme Court, continue to be flooded. 

✓ Delhi’s officials have attributed this to the flooding of the Yamuna in upstream States, particularly at Yamunanagar in Haryana, with the barrages in Delhi unable to effectively regulate and redirect the river’s flow.

✓ While urban flooding is far more frequent in Bengaluru, Chennai and Mumbai, Delhi should no longer consider itself immune given that its population and infrastructural needs are only going to expand. 

✓ Much like the National Capital Territory evolved a joint management strategy to tackle air pollution, on realising that clean air is interdependent on action by all cities, these States must set aside their differences and evolve a joint strategy on countering future floods.

✓ This however elides the role of Delhi’s infrastructural development that through the years has given short shrift to restricting construction on the Yamuna’s floodplains, failed to prioritise the desilting of drains ahead of the monsoon, and scrimped on steps to avoid the large-scale concretisation of the city. Though there is the case that even upstream of Delhi, riverbed mining has meant that huge amounts of silt from Haryana block the natural flow of the river, blame games and pointing to “record rains” are unhelpful. 
✓ The increased probability of spells of extreme rain, given warming trends in the Arctic as well as the Arabian Sea, means that there will be several more instances of flooding in the future. 

ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE 2017 (With Amendments upto 2020)

 

LIDAR REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM

 

Urban Flooding in Metropolitan Cities

 

Delhi Master Plan 2041

Master Plan for Delhi (MPD) 2041 is an instrument that assesses the current status of the National Capital and guides how desired development in various areas can be achieved. This is the fourth master plan developed by Delhi development Authority (DDA).

Key Focus Areas of MPD 2041:

Environment:

Green cover: Even though Delhi is among the greenest cities in the country, the distribution of greenery across the city is uneven and hence inequitable.

The MPD 2041 categorizes the Ridge as a regional park and limits development and activities in the area.

Agencies will have to promote native species of trees and plants which act as pollution filters.

Pollution: Environmental pollution is a significant concern, with the city witnessing poor air quality almost throughout the year. This can be tackled through multi-state efforts, the master plan notes.

NCR member states are required to follow directions of the Regional Plan and the Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority to address pollution and climate change.

All development activities have to follow dust mitigation measures while handling construction materials and construction and demolition (C&D) waste.

There is a need to improve awareness and provide adequate and reliable information to engage stakeholders as implementation partners.

Water:

Water availability: The Yamuna River is the most precious water resource of the city.

The city also hosts water bodies in the form of lakes, ponds, and tanks, which have been facing encroachment, pollution, and natural drying up, affecting its water resources.

Water pollution: The 22-km stretch of Yamuna between Wazirabad and Okhla in Delhi accounts for about 70% of the pollution load in the river.

Addressing concerns: The MPD 2041 seeks prevent discharge of untreated wastewater and industrial effluents into water bodies. The plan aims for time-bound removal of existing pollutants using natural non-mechanized systems.

There is a provision for periodic monitoring along the entire length of drains by the Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC).

Energy and Waste:

Delhi is one of the highest power consumers and waste generators in the country, and the MPD seeks to identify potential renewable energy generation areas within the city along with strategies and projects to meet the Renewable Energy targets.

The plan proposes several steps, such as mandatory use of modular star-rated electrical appliances and electrical fixtures in buildings for higher energy efficiency.

Segregation of waste at source points, empowering local bodies to tackle waste generated at large public gatherings and festivals held in open areas, and mainstreaming reuse and recycling practices are being suggested for better waste management.

Mobility:

Due to its huge fleet of private vehicles, the city witnesses congestion and unorganized parking, apart from contributing to air pollution.

MPD seeks to improve the mobility of citizens by providing last-mile connectivity and infrastructure for walking and cycling.

Encouraging green mobility to tackle climate change will be a priority under MPD.

Housing:

Population increase and migration have created a need for new types of housing in Delhi.

The MPD seeks to provide affordable rental housing, etc., and enhanced built environment, safety and quality of life in old and unplanned areas.

The plan will address the housing needs of students, single working women and men, migrants and others through affordable housing, rental housing, hostels, studio apartments, serviced apartments, and dormitories

Public Spaces:

The existing open and public spaces have become inadequate. There is a need to make public spaces more accessible, inclusive, and safer for its residents.

The MPD will address issues of safety, encroachment, and lack of infrastructure to ensure a vibrant public realm in the city.

Heritage Sites:

Delhi being a heritage city, the MPD aims to preserve various heritage sites across the city by building strong economic linkages and creating opportunities for cultural experience, tourism and active public life.

Local bodies will be allowed to set up Heritage Cells to manage heritage assets, monitor the status of their upkeep, promote complementary economic/ cultural activities, conduct festivals, facilitate adaptive reuse projects, and set up a heritage fund to support these initiatives.

Plans for specific heritage zones of Delhi include promoting Shahjahanabad (walled city) as a cultural enterprise hub, and following development-oriented norms for Lutyens’ bungalow zone.

Vulnerability:

The City of Delhi is vulnerable to damage due to earthquakes, fire outbreaks and flooding.

MPD measures include dedicated structural audits, mandatory clearances from the fire department for buildings hosting inflammable materials, obstruction-free natural and engineered drains with regular desilting.

Economic Potential:

Areas such as specialty health, higher education, tourism, modern logistics, and specialized trade will be focused to realize Delhi’s potential as an economic hub.

MPD seeks a balanced economic growth by supporting formal and informal economies (inclusive economy), promoting eco-friendly economies (clean economy) and encouraging economies that provide a unique role for the city in the regional context (niche economy).

Monitoring and Evaluation:

MPD calls for monitoring and evaluation framework with key performance indicators to ensure growth is in desired direction.

This can be implemented through a common database at the city-level with multi-agency coordination and an integrated monitoring protocol.

An interdisciplinary team at DDA will be set up to check the progress of the plan.

Flash Floods in India

 

Coastal Erosion In India

 

Programmes and Schemes to Encourage Tree Plantation in Urban Areas

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has taken various initiatives through programmes and schemes that encourages tree plantation including urban areas in the country. The scheme, Nagar Van Yojana (NVY) has been launched during the year 2020, for creation of Nagar Vans in urban areas, which promotes urban forestry by involving local communities, NGOs, educational institutions, local bodies, etc.

Besides, the National Mission for a Green India (GIM), under which, in addition to other sub-missions, there is a specific sub-mission for enhancing tree cover in urban and peri-urban areas. Urban forestry is also a permissible activity under the provisions of Compensatory Fund Act, 2016 and the Rules made thereunder. Forestry/tree plantation activities including urban forestry, being a multi-departmental, multi-agency activity, are taken up cross-sectorally under various programmes/funding sources of other ministries/ organizations and also through State Plan budgets.

The tree outside forest (ToF) refers to all trees growing outside recorded forest areas. The patches of 1 ha and above outside the recorded forest area and Tree Cover, both constitute the ToF. As per India State of Forest Report (ISFR), 2015 published by Forest Survey of India (FSI), MoEFCC the Tree Cover is 92,572 sq. km. As per India State of Forest Report (ISFR), 2021 the Tree Cover is 95,748 sq. km. The Forest Survey of India in ISFR, 2021 have done mapping for Forest Cover in Major Mega Cities i.e. Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata and Mumbai. The total forest cover reported in these seven major mega cities is 509.72 sq. km. Nagar Van Yojana envisages creating a Nagar Van / Nagar Vatika in each City having Municipal Corporation/Municipal council/Municipality/Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) for providing wholesome healthy living environment for the residents and thus contributing to growth of clean, green, healthy and sustainable cities. The salient features of Nagar Van Yojana are:

(i) Creating green space and aesthetic environment in an urban set up.

(ii) Creating awareness about plants and biodiversity and developing environment stewardship.

(iii) Facilitating in-situ conservation of important flora of the region.

(iv)Contributing to environmental improvement of cities by pollution mitigation, providing cleaner air, noise reduction, water harvesting and reduction of heat islands effect.

(v) Extending health benefits to residents of the city and

(vi) Helping cities become climate resilient.

Under NVY, so far, 385 projects have been sanctioned in the country, since inception of the scheme in 2020.

Flood Disaster in India

India is extremely susceptible to flooding. Over 40 million hectares (mha) of the 329 million hectares (mha) total geographic area are at risk of flooding. Floods are a frequent occurrence that result in significant human casualties as well as damage to property, infrastructure, and public services. The fact that flood-related damages are on the rise is cause for alarm.

In the past ten years, from 1996 to 2005, the average yearly flood damage was Rs. 4745 crore, compared to Rs. 1805 crore, the corresponding average for the prior 53 years. Numerous factors, such as a sharp rise in population, fast urbanization, an increase in economic and development activity in flood plains, and global warming, might be blamed for this.

Flood Zone Map:

Punjab, Haryana, the majority of the Gangetic plains, including Uttar Pradesh, North Bihar, and West Bengal, the Brahmaputra valley, coastal Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, and southern Gujarat are the primary flood zone in India. Kerala and Tamil Nadu are currently experiencing the full force of the floods. In September 2014, the Indian-administrated Jammu and Kashmir territory saw catastrophic flooding that affected the majority of its districts. Devastating floods and landslides were created in June 2013 by a multi-day cloudburst that was centered on the state of Uttarakhand in northern India. 

What is Flood:

Flood is a state of high-water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to inundation of land. Floods are commonly associated with a stream or river. A stream floods when its discharge is greater than the capacity of its river channel. Excess water flows over the riverbanks and submerges the adjacent land which is usually dry. When it happens, the channel and the flood plain together allow passage of water.

Flood in India 2023:

Heavy rainfall during the 2023 monsoon season resulted in severe flooding and landslides across Northern India, primarily affecting residents in Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Chandigarh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir, Haryana, Rajasthan and Delhi. A monsoon surge, coupled with a western disturbance has led to the highest rainfall in decades in some parts of the region, causing nearby rivers to overflow, with flooding and landslides washing away vehicles, destroying bridges and roads, and disrupting power and electricity.

Over 100 individuals across Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi, have died over a two-week period of intense rain and flooding, with thousands of others evacuated to relief camps. The states of Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana experienced extensive waterlogging due to heavy rainfall.

Causes of Floods:

The causes of flood can be classified into two types first the Natural causes and second is the Anthropogenic Causes. The natural causes have been mentioned below:

Heavy rainfall:

Heavy rain in the catchment area of a river causes water to overflow its banks, which results in the flooding of nearby areas. The Assam floods are due to heavy rainfall in a short period of time.

Snow melt:

Snowmelt and glacial melt are gradual processes and usually does not cause major floods. But sometimes glaciers hold large quantity of bounded water, which may be suddenly released with melting of ice block resulting into Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). In June 2013, flashfloods in Uttarakhand that wiped out settlements and decimated lives are attributed to a GLOF in the Chorabari glacier.

Sediment deposition:

Riverbeds become shallow due to sedimentation. The water carrying capacity of such river is reduced. As a result, the heavy rainwater overflows the river banks. Frequent floods were observed in 2003, 2008, 2011, and 2013 near the deltaic region of the Mahanadi River due to the excessive sediment deposition.

Tropical cyclones and hurricanes:

These powerful weather systems often bring heavy rainfall and storm surges, resulting in widespread flooding in coastal and low-lying areas. In 2019, Cyclone Fani hit the eastern coast of India, resulting in heavy rainfall and storm surges.

Change in the course of the river:

Meanders, erosion of riverbeds and banks, and obstruction of flow due to landslides also lead to changes in river courses. The 2008 Kosi River flood resulted from heavy rainfall and a subsequent course change, leading to catastrophic flooding, displacement of thousands, and widespread damage in Bihar, India.

Tsunami:

Large coastal areas are flooded by rising sea water, when a tsunami strikes the coast.

Lack of Lakes:

Lakes can store the excess water and regulate the flow of water. When lakes become smaller, their ability to regulate the flow become less and, hence flooding.

The Anthropogenic Causes has been discussed below:

Deforestation:

The removal of trees and vegetation reduces the natural absorption of rainfall, leading to increased surface runoff and a higher likelihood of flooding. The devastating floods that hit the state of Kerala in 2018 were partially attributed to deforestation, as the loss of forest cover reduced the natural water-holding capacity of the region.

Urbanization:

Construction of buildings, roads, and other infrastructure reduces natural permeable surfaces, which can exacerbate surface runoff and overwhelm drainage systems. Chennai experienced severe flooding in 2015 due to heavy rainfall combined with unplanned urbanization. The city’s drainage systems were overwhelmed, resulting in widespread inundation and disruption.

Land use changes:

Alterations in land use, such as converting natural wetlands into agricultural or urban areas, can disrupt natural water retention and drainage patterns, increasing the risk of flooding.

Dam failures:

Structural failures or breaches in dams and reservoirs can release large volumes of water downstream, causing severe flooding. In 2019, the collapse of the Tiware Dam in Maharashtra caused flash floods in downstream villages.

Interference in drainage system:

Drainage congestion caused by badly planned construction of bridges, roads, railway tracks, canals etc. hampers the flow of water and results in floods.

Flood Vulnerability in India:

As per the Geological Survey of India (GSI), over 40 million hectares which is nearly 12 % of the total land area of India is prone to floods.

India receives an annual rainfall of 1200 mm, 85% of which is concentrated in 3-4 months i.e., June to September. Due to the intense and periodic rain, most of the rivers are fed with huge quantity of water, much beyond their carrying capacity leading to mild to severe flood situations in the region.

The major flood areas in India are in the Ganges – Brahmaputra – Meghna Basin which accounts for nearly 60% of the total river flow of the country.

Floods in India in Last 5 years:

This is a list of significant floods that have been documented in India. In India, floods are the most frequent natural calamity. The Brahmaputra, one of the heavier southwest rivers, as well as other rivers, often cause nearby communities to flood. Check the flood disaster from 2018 to 2023.

Kerala Flood in 2018 and 2019:

Kerala experienced a 23% overflow of the southwest monsoon in 2018, and August saw 96% above-average rainfall. Kerala, India, experienced significant rainfall on August 8 in the middle of the evening that was 116% over average, causing dams to overflow. The state received 310 mm (12 in) of rain over the last 48 hours. Since the water level had increased to almost overflow level as a result of severe rain, flooding nearby low-lying areas, nearly all dams had been opened. 35 of the state’s 54 dams have been opened for the first time ever. The leveling of wetlands is thought to be one cause. It has been said that the flood was a result of global warming.

Kerala was severely flooded on August 8, 2019, as a result of the monsoon season’s abundant rainfall. A low that tossed the Arabian Sea caused heavy convection over Kerala, which led to the severe rains. To safer locations and relief camps, thousands of people have been evacuated. As of August 19th, 2019, 121 persons had lost their lives as a result of rain-related incidents.

Assam Flood in 2020:

The state of Assam is susceptible to yearly flooding because of its tropical monsoon environment. The COVID-19 pandemic and the large flood of the Brahmaputra River in the Indian state of Assam are referred to as the “2020 Assam Floods.” Heavy rains in May 2020 caused the first floods, which affected 30,000 people and destroyed crops in five regions.

Uttarakhand Flood in 2021:

The Chamoli tragedy, also known as the 2021 Uttarakhand flood, started on February 7, 2021, near the Nanda Devi National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the outer Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand state, India. It was brought on by a massive rock and ice avalanche that was triggered by debris that was displaced from Ronti mountain. The Rishiganga, Dhauliganga, and Alaknanda rivers—the main headstream of the Ganges—all experienced floods in the Chamoli area as a result. Over 200 people were murdered or missing as a result of the catastrophe. Most were laborers at the Tapovan dam construction site.

Assam Floods in 2022:

One of the worst floods Assam has ever experienced occurred in 2022, lasting over 7 months (from April to October 2022) in a series of waves. The Pre-Monsoon Rains, which began in the state on April 6, 2022, and the Monsoon Season that followed are the main contributors to the floods. A total of 5.6 million people were impacted, 4.7 million were displaced, 108,308 hectares of cropland were devastated, 3,660,173 animals were impacted, and 32 districts in the state were affected.

North India Flood in 2023:

In Northern India, the monsoon season of 2023 brought about severe flooding and landslides that predominantly affected the people living in Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Chandigarh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Delhi. The heaviest rainfall in certain parts of the region in decades has been brought on by a monsoon surge and a western disturbance. This has caused local rivers to overflow, flooding and landslides to demolish bridges and roads, wash away cars, and impair power and electricity.

Consequences of Floods:

Loss of life and injuries: Floods can result in the loss of human lives and cause injuries, especially when people are caught unaware or unable to evacuate in time.

Damage to infrastructure: Floodwaters can cause severe damage to roads, bridges, buildings, and other infrastructure. This damage can disrupt transportation networks, communication systems, and essential services, making rescue and relief operations challenging.

Displacement and homelessness: Floods often force people to evacuate their homes and seek shelter in temporary accommodations or relief camps.

Impact on agriculture and food security: Floods can devastate agricultural lands and crops, destroy livestock leading to significant losses in the agricultural sector.

Water contamination and health risks: Spread of diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, hepatitis and other water-borne diseases spread in the flood-affected areas.

Environmental damage: Floods can cause erosion, sedimentation, and the destruction of natural habitats.

Soil fertility: Floods also make a few positive contributions. Every year, flood deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields which restores fertility of the soil.

Flood Prevention and Mitigation:

Structural Measures:

Dams and Reservoirs: Construction of dams and reservoirs to store excess water during heavy rainfall and release it in a controlled manner, reducing downstream flood risk.

Levees and Floodwalls: Building embankments, levees, and floodwalls along rivers and coastlines to contain floodwaters and protect adjacent areas from inundation.

Flood Diversion Channels: Creation of diversion channels or canals to redirect excess water away from vulnerable areas, reducing flood impact.

Flood Control Basins: Designing flood control basins or detention ponds to temporarily store and regulate floodwaters, preventing their rapid downstream flow.

Channelization: Modifying and straightening river channels to improve their flow capacity and efficiency, reducing the risk of overflow and flooding.

Floodplain Restoration: Restoring natural floodplains by removing obstructions, reconnecting floodplain habitats, and creating additional space for water storage during floods.

Non-Structural Measures:

Flood plain Zoning and Land Use Planning: Implementing zoning regulations that restrict construction in high-risk floodplain areas, ensuring that development is appropriately located and mitigating potential flood damage.

Early Warning Systems: Establishing robust early warning systems that use technology and community engagement to provide timely alerts and evacuation guidance to vulnerable populations.

Flood Insurance and Financial Mechanisms: Promoting the availability of flood insurance to incentivize risk reduction measures and provide financial protection to individuals and businesses affected by floods.

Public Awareness and Education: Conducting public awareness campaigns to educate communities about flood risks, safety measures, and preparedness strategies, fostering a culture of resilience.

Urban Drainage Systems: Developing and maintaining efficient stormwater drainage systems in urban areas to manage excess rainfall and prevent waterlogging and urban flooding.

Ecosystem-Based Approaches: Preserving and restoring natural ecosystems, such as wetlands and mangroves, which act as natural buffers and absorb floodwaters, reducing flood impacts.

Integrated Water Resources Management: Adopting an integrated approach to water resources management that considers the entire watershed, balancing water allocation, flood control, and environmental sustainability.

Urban Floods

What is Urban Flooding:

Urban flooding refers to the inundation of land or built-up areas, particularly in densely populated locations such as cities, due to excessive rainfall that surpasses the capabilities of drainage systems to handle the water.

Urban flooding is a major problem in many parts of the world and it is the leading cause of global flood losses.

How urban flooding is different from rural flooding:

Flood intensity: Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to developed catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times.

Vulnerability: As urban areas are densely populated; people are more vulnerable to flooding and secondary effect of exposure to infection.

Economic impact: Urban areas being centers of economic activities have key infrastructure that has a bearing on national and global economy.

Causes of Urban Floods:

Meteorological factors:

Heavy rainfall: Intense and prolonged rainfall events can overwhelm the capacity of urban drainage systems to handle the volume of water, leading to floods.

Cyclonic storms and thunderstorms: They can bring heavy rainfall, strong winds, and intense downpours, resulting in rapid runoff leading to urban flooding.

Climate change: Climate change has resulted in extreme weather events, exacerbating the frequency of heavy rainfall episodes characterized by short durations.

Hydrological factors:

Overbank flow channel networks: The presence or absence of well-designed and maintained drainage systems, such as canals, rivers, and stormwater channels, affects the capacity of an area to handle excess water during heavy rainfall.

High tides in coastal cities: Coastal cities face additional challenges, as high tides can impede the drainage of rainfall water into the ocean or other bodies of water. This can cause water to back up and flood urban areas.

Anthropogenic Factors:

Land use changes and urbanization: Extensive urbanization and land use changes, such as replacing natural surfaces with impermeable materials like concrete and asphalt, reduce the land’s ability to absorb rainfall. This increases surface runoff and the risk of urban flooding.

Example: Chennai Floods 2015 – The rapid and unplanned urbanization in Chennai, particularly the conversion of wetlands and water bodies into built-up areas, played a significant role in exacerbating the flooding.

Occupation of floodplains and obstruction of flood flows: Building structures in flood-prone areas or obstructing natural watercourses can disrupt the natural flow of water during heavy rainfall events. This can cause water to accumulate and lead to flooding.

Example: Mumbai Floods 2005 – The flood event in Mumbai was partly attributed to the occupation of floodplains and the obstruction of flood flows due to encroachments and improper land use.

Urban heat island effect: Urban areas often experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas, creating what is known as the urban heat island effect. This can influence weather patterns and increase localized rainfall, which can contribute to urban flooding.

Dam operations: Sudden releases of water from upstream dams can result in a surge of water downstream, overwhelming urban areas. Conversely, failure to release water from dams during heavy rainfall can cause a backwater effect, where water cannot flow freely, leading to flooding.

Example: Uttarakhand Floods 2013 – The devastating flood event in Uttarakhand was exacerbated by the sudden release of water from dams located upstream. Heavy rainfall combined with the release of water from dams caused flash floods and landslides, resulting in significant loss of life and infrastructure damage in the region.

Improper waste disposal: Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste, such as garbage and debris, into urban water drains and channels can clog the drainage system. This obstruction impedes the flow of water during the monsoon season and increases the likelihood of urban flooding.

Example: Bengaluru Floods 2017 – The improper disposal of solid waste, particularly the clogging of stormwater drains with garbage and debris, contributed to urban flooding in Bengaluru.

Illegal Mining Activities: Illegal mining of river sand and quartzite for use in building construction deplete the natural bed of the rivers and lakes. It causes soil erosion and reduces the water retention capacity of the waterbody increasing the speed and scale of water flow.

Impacts of Urban Flooding:

Loss of Life and Property: Urban flooding poses a direct threat to human life and can result in casualties and injuries. It also leads to damage and destruction of buildings, infrastructure, and personal property.

Disruption of City Functions: Urban flooding can damage water supply systems, sewerage networks, power transmission lines, communication networks, transportation infrastructure (roads and railways), and other essential services.

Environmental Impact: The force of floodwaters can uproot trees, destroy vegetation, and lead to soil erosion. It also washes pollutants, debris, and waste into rivers and other water bodies, harming aquatic ecosystems and contributing to water pollution.

Health Impacts: Urban flooding increases the risk of waterborne diseases and the spread of infections. Contaminated floodwater can carry pathogens, chemicals, and pollutants that pose health hazards to humans and animals.

Psychological Impacts: loss of shelter, personal belongings, and the trauma of witnessing the destruction and potential loss of lives can lead to long-lasting emotional distress and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Urban Flood Risk in India:

There has been an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past several years whereby major cities in India have been severely affected.

Recent events of urban floods include Chennai floods of 2015 Mumbai floods of 2017, Guwahati floods of 2010, Bengaluru floods 2017 and Hyderabad floods of 2020.

There will be a rise in the frequency of floods in India due to rise in temperatures between 2070 and 2100, according to Climate Change and India: A 4×4 Assessment, a report by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forest.

Regions susceptible to floods, according to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), lie mostly along the Ganga-Brahmaputra river basin, from the northern states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, covering Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and stretching to Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in the northeast.

The coastal states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, parts of Telangana and Gujarat also witness yearly floods, NDMA observed.

National Disaster Management (NDMA) Guidelines on Urban Flood Management:

In 2010, NDMA had issued guidelines on Urban Flood Management in India:

✓ Create a National Hydro-meteorological Network.

✓ The guidelines say that for providing early warning, the Central Water Commission (CWC) should maximize the real-time hydro-meteorological network to cover all urban centres to effectively deal with the problem of urban flooding.

✓ Use of Doppler Weather Radars to be expanded to cover all urban areas in the country.

✓ An inventory of the existing stormwater drainage system to be prepared. The inventory will be both watershed-based and ward-based.

✓ Catchment to be the basis for planning and designing the stormwater drainage systems in all ULBs (Urban Local Bodies).

✓ All future road and rail bridges in cities crossing drain to be designed such that they do not block the flows resulting in backwater effect.

✓ Every building in an urban area must have rainwater harvesting as an integral component of the building utility.

✓ Low-lying areas in cities have to be reserved for parks and other low-impact human activities.

✓ Encroachments on the drain should attract penal action.

✓ Pre-monsoon desilting of all major drains to be completed by March 31 each year.

✓ Urban Flooding has to be dealt as a separate disaster, de-linking it from riverine floods which affect the rural areas.

✓ Suitable interventions in the drainage system like traps, trash racks can be provided to reduce the amount of solid waste going into the storm sewers.

✓ Inlets to be provided on the roads to drain water to the roadside drains and these have to be designed based on current national and international practices.

✓ Concept of Rain Gardens to be incorporated in planning for public parks and on-site stormwater management for larger colonies and sites that are to be developed.

✓ Flood hazard assessments should be done on the basis of projected future scenarios of intensities and duration of the rainfall and land-use changes.

Way Forward:

Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Develop climate-resilient infrastructure that can withstand extreme weather events and effectively manage water runoff. This includes incorporating green infrastructure, such as bioswales, permeable pavements, and rooftop gardens, which can absorb and store rainwater.

Early Warning Systems and Communication: Establish robust early warning systems that utilize advanced technologies to disseminate flood warnings in real-time. This helps residents and authorities to take necessary precautions and evacuate if required.

Developing Sponge Cities: The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which falls upon it. The approach aims to enhance the capacity of cities to absorb, store, and utilize rainwater to mitigate flood risks and improve water resource management.

Urban Drainage Systems: Implement proper watershed management and develop emergency drainage plans. Regular maintenance and cleaning of drains and stormwater channels are essential to ensure smooth water flow and prevent blockages caused by solid waste and debris.

Conservation of Water Bodies: Protect and restore urban water bodies like lakes, tanks, and ponds, as they play a crucial role in managing urban flooding. These water bodies can act as natural retention basins, reducing stormwater runoff and preventing flooding.

Role of Science and Technology: This includes the use of predictive precipitation modeling, geospatial frameworks for vulnerability assessments, and innovative tools for analyzing and planning effective flood management strategies.

Urban planning with nature-based solutions: urban flood management in India continues to focus only on improving grey infrastructure, rescue & relief, instead of building solutions to increase flood resilience. Therefore, urban planning should adopt a hybrid approach of integrated green and grey infrastructure solutions.