Various Types of Parks

Contemporary parks and open-space planning focuses on creating systems that respond to local values, needs and circumstances. The region of the country, physical setting, landscape features, demographics and socioeconomic characteristics are all determining factors in the form that a community’s park and open-space system. In each system, parks and open spaces are defined under various classifications that function individually and collectively to create a cohesive and balanced system. Successful parks and open-space systems are often planned around distinguishing landscape features or local themes that exhibit the unique qualities of a community.

Common to all systems is the notion of creating a high-quality living environment through the provision of parks, open spaces and recreational amenities. With such a broad spectrum of potential applications, the classifications for parks and open space are necessarily flexible and adaptable to the unique circumstances to which they are applied. The extent to which one type of park versus another is found within a system is determined by local needs and circumstances. In a metropolitan system, emphasis on neighborhood parks, parkways and large urban parks is common in response to the urban form and distinctiveness of individual neighborhoods.

1) Neighborhood Park

Neighborhood parks are the basic unit of the park system and serve a recreational and social purpose. Development focuses on informal recreation. Programmed activities are typically limited to youth sports practices and occasionally games.

2) Community and Large Urban Parks

Community and large urban parks are considerably larger in scale and serve a broader purpose than neighborhood parks. The main difference between a community and large urban park is that the latter is often associated with urban settings with large populations. Large urban parks also tend to be larger than community parks in order to provide more park space in a denser populated urban setting. The focus of both types of parks is on meeting wide-ranging community recreation and social needs. The facilities found within these parks are entirely based on community needs. Development focuses on both active and passive recreation, with a wide array of programmed activities often being accommodated. Special-use facilities are routinely located within these parks. This type of park also encompasses unique and extensive landscape features indicative of the region.

3) Youth and Community Athletic Complexes

Youth and community athletic complexes consolidate athletic facilities to strategic locations within a community to take advantage of programming efficiencies and economies of scale. Consolidation of athletic facilities also allows for a closer association between players, parents and coaches at scheduled events. Larger and fewer sites also provide greater conveniences, such as parking, restrooms and concessions and the capacity to generate revenue to offset operational and maintenance costs. Community athletic complexes are most common and serve both youth and adult athletic programs.

Youth athletic complexes are more common in larger metropolitan areas. In most cases, athletic complexes are heavily programmed with facilities to maximize land uses and operational efficiency. The type of facilities found within these parks is entirely based on community athletic program needs. With ever-changing recreational trends, greater emphasis is being placed on designing athletic complexes to be as flexible as possible without unduly compromising specific uses.

4) Greenways

Greenways are lands set aside for preservation of natural resources, remnant landscapes, open space and visual aesthetics. Greenways also provide passive-use opportunities, most often in the form of trails and nature centers. The key focus is on protecting ecological resources and providing wildlife corridors. Greenways can take various forms. In the broadest application, greenways form a network of interconnected natural areas throughout a community. They function as part of a border less system that links together parks, natural open spaces and trail corridors into a latticework of public space.

In this context, the line between greenways, parks, trails and the built environment is purposefully fostering the “city as a park” concept. Establishing an extensive continuous greenway system requires a close collaborative relationship between the city and development community in order to set aside the land for this purpose. Greenways can also take the form of a stand-alone land parcel dedicated to open-space preservation. These are often referred to as nature preserves or nature parks and often serve the same basic function as other forms of greenways.

5) Parkways

Parkways are best characterized as linear parks that also serve as transportation corridors between public parks, historic features, monuments, institutions and business centers. They often follow a notable landscape feature such as a creek or river.

6) Special-Use Parks

The special-use classification covers a broad range of parks and recreation facilities oriented toward single purpose or specialized use.

• Nature and cultural or performing arts centers
• Historic sites: downtowns, plazas, cemeteries, historic landscapes, churches and monuments
• Recreation facilities: aquatic centers, campgrounds, ice arenas, fitness centers, community centers, skateboard parks and stadiums
• Public gathering areas: amphitheaters, community commons, town centers and urban squares

7) Park-School

The park-school classification pertains to school sites used in concert with or in lieu of, other classes of parks to meet community park and recreation needs. In most cases, these sites are best suited for youth athletic facilities for school, district and community- based recreational programs. Park-school sites also often provide the majority of indoor recreational facilities within a community. To a lesser degree, school sites can also be used to service neighborhood park needs. The limiting factor is that most of these sites are heavily programmed for active uses and school buildings. This often leaves little space to accommodate neighborhood-focused amenities and create an aesthetically appealing setting that would draw families into the site.

8) Private Park/Recreation Facility

The private park/recreation facility classification covers a broad range of nonpublic parks and recreation facilities. This includes facilities such as golf courses, fitness clubs, museums, private courtyards, amphitheaters, horse-riding stables, water parks and miniature golf courses. This classification is provided as a means to acknowledge the contribution that a given private facility has to the public parks and open-space system within a community.

9) Regional Parks

The definition of a regional park varies considerably across the country. The common distinguishing feature is that regional parks typically service multiple cities and cross political jurisdictions. In many cases, a separate regional park authority is established to manage a series of regional parks. In some areas of the country, developers of regional parks focus on setting aside larger tracts of land to preserve natural resources, remnant landscapes and open space. A key objective is protecting ecological resources and providing wildlife habitat. Passive uses, such as hiking, canoeing and nature viewing are most common forms of activities.

The primary distinction between this type of regional parks and greenways is scale and service area. Regional parks are typically at a much larger scale (in land area) than greenways. In other areas of the country, regional parks are an extension of the large urban park classification. In addition to preserving natural resources and open space, these parks also provide active recreational areas, gardens, picnic facilities and other forms of special use. In parts of the country, regional parks include major national monuments and historic landscapes.

Modern Town Planning in India

In India, the various states have passed town planning act to enforce town planning activity. The main source of all these town planning acts are the English Town Planning Act of 1909, the main provision in this act is that local authorities are given power to prepare and to enforce town planning schemes on open lands in the city and on its fringe.

For the purpose of looking after the planning and execution of new parts within metro-centres, various organizations such as DDA (Delhi Development Authority), CIDCO (City and Industrial Development Corporation), CMPO (Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organization), HUDCO (Housing and Urban Development Corporation), etc., are set up by the government.In addition to local authorities, the State Government is empowered to declare urban development areas and to set up urban development authorities for such areas. Such authorities are given the following powers.

• To prepare development plans for the urban areas.
• To prepare town planning schemes.
• To carry out surveys in the urban development area.
• To guide, direct and assist the local authority in urban development.
• To control development activities according to the plan.
• To execute work in connection with supply of water, disposal of sewage.
• To enter into contracts and agreements with local authority and organizations.

Socio – Economic Aspects of Town Planning

The town planning is desirable if its adoption leads to better utilization of the resources of the community. Hence, for any given size, the best planned town is one where the aggregate land values are at a maximum. Thus, economically, the best town plan will lead to the highest aggregate land values. While adopting the land values condition, the following factors are to be considered for assessing the economic worth of town planning.

• Change in quantity of resource
• Demand for goods and services
• Production techniques
• Redistribution of land values

The economic advantages offered by urban way of life are enormous. But at the same time, urban growth is not smooth and there are many difficulties that prevent the town from making maximum contribution to national economy. Some of the economic disadvantage can be mentioned as difficulties in securing housing accommodation, congestion of facilities, etc. In a similar way, the drawbacks from various disciplines can be enumerated as follows.

• The local government is concerned with the expansion of urban area, and its administration, etc.
• The medical officer is concerned with the effects of dirt, smoke, etc. on the health of urban dwellers.
• The psychologist is concerned with the effects of noise and strain leading to greater insanity and psychological pressure.
• The sociologist is concerned with the formation of slums, inadequate recreational facilities, increase in theft and crime, etc.

Development of different types of rural settlements

    Types of rural settlements imply the degree of dispersion or nucleation of the dwellings whereas the patterns refer to geometrical shapes formed by the arrangement of dwellings. 

    Various authors have suggested different schemes of discussing settlement types. Finch and Trewartha et al. refers to two primary types of settlements, (i) the isolated or dispersed and (ii) the nucleated. These are two extreme types of groupings, wherein isolated settlements refer to a single family residence and the nucleated settlements refer to a group of dwellings clustered almost in the centre of the village lands. 

    R.L. Singh discerns four main types: (i) compact settlements, (ii) semi-compact or hemleted cluster, (iii) semi-sprinkled or fragmented or hamleted settlements and (iv) sprinkled or dispersed type. On the basis of number of villages, hamlets and number of occupance units, R.B. Singh identified four settlements. They are (i) compact, (ii) semi-compact, (iii) hamleted and (iv) dispersed or scattered type.

(i) Compact settlements: 

If the number of villages equals the number of hamlets in an area unit, the settlement is designated as compact. Such settlements are found throughout the plateau region of Malwa, in the Narmada Valley, Nimar upland, large parts of Rajasthan, paddy lands in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Vindhyan Plateau and several other cultivated parts of India. In such villages all the dwellings are concentrated in one central site. The inhabitants of the village live together and enjoy the benefits of community life. Such settlements range from a cluster of about thirty to hundreds of dwellings of different forms, sizes and functions. Their size varies from 500 to 2,500 persons in sparsely populated parts like Rajasthan to more than 10,000 in the Ganga plain.

(ii) Semi-compact settlements: 

If the number of villages equals more than half of the hamlets, it is semi-compact settlement. These are found both in plains and plateaus depending upon the environmental conditions prevailing there. The dwellings in such settlements are not very closely knitted and are huddled together at one common site. It covers more area than the compact settlements; the hamlets occupy new sites near the periphery of the village boundary. 

(iii) Hamleted settlements: 

If the number of villages is equal to half of hamlet number, it is a hamlet settlement. The hamlets are spread over the area with intervening fields and the main or central settlement is either absent or has feeble influence upon others. Often the original site is not easily distinguishable and the morphological diversity is rarely noticed. Such settlements are found in West Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and coastal plains.

(iv) Dispersed settlements:

If the number of villages is less than half the number of hamlets, the settlement is regarded as dispersed. The inhabitants of dispersed settlements live in isolated dwellings scattered in the cultivated fields. Individualism, sentiments of living freely, custom of .marriage relations are conducive to such settlements.

However, these dwellings are deprived of neighbourhood, communal interdependence and social interaction. Dispersed settlements are found in tribal areas covering central part of India, eastern and southern Rajasthan, Himalayan slopes and land with dissected and uneven topography. Homesteads or farmsteads of wheat producing areas in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh also belong to this category.

Environment Impacts Assessment

 

Use of Technology in Urban Planning

GIS APPLICATIONS IN URBAN PLANNING

The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and monitoring of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue primarily due to the advantages mentioned below: 

 Planning of project 

 Make better decisions 

 Visual Analysis 

 Spatial analysis 

 Improve Organizational Integration

i) Planning of Project: 

The advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of a project that has a large spatial component; and, where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. Thematic maps generation is possible on one or more than one base maps. As an example: the generation of a land use map on the basis of a soil composition, vegetation, and topography. The unique combination of certain features facilitates the creation of such thematic maps. With the various modules within, GIS it is possible to calculate surface, length, width, and distance.

ii) Making Decisions: 

The adage “better information leads to better decisions” is as true for GIS as it is for other information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system, but a tool to query, analyze, and map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has been used to assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping to resolve territorial disputes, and placing pylons in such a way as to minimize visual intrusion. 

iii) Visual Analysis: 

Digital Terrain Modelling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D modelling, a particular landscape can be better visualized which leads to better understanding of certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion volume (for example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments, land levelling) and hydrological modelling becomes easier. 

Aside form the previously mentioned fields, in the social sciences GIS can prove extremely useful, too. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can be a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data, such as population distribution, market localization, and other related features.

iv) Spatial Analysis: 

The use of spatial analysis, which is a technique of GIS, helps to: 

 Identify trends on the data. 

 Create new relationships from the data. 

 View complex relationships between data sets. 

 Make better decisions

v) Improving Organizational Integration: 

Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main benefits is improved management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to link data sets together by geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and communication. By creating a shared database, one department can benefit from the work of another - data can be collected once and used many times.

As communication increases among individuals and departments, redundancy is reduced, productivity is enhanced, and overall organizational efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility company, for example, the customer and infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is planned maintenance, people can be informed by computer-generated letters.

URBAN FLOODING AND HUMAN SETTLEMENT

Urban flooding is the term used to describe the flooding of land or property within a constructed environment, especially in locations that are more densely inhabited (like cities), as a result of excessive rainfall that exceeds the capacity of drainage systems. Urban flooding, in contrast to country floods (heavy rain over flat or low-lying terrain), is a result of both increased precipitation and unplanned urbanisation (catchments).

Causes Of Urban Flooding: 

Encroachment on drainage channels; unplanned tourism; climate change; Unplanned release of water from dams; Illegal mining

Impact Of Urban Flooding: 

Loss of life and property; Negative impact on Ecosystem; Negative impact on Human and Animal Health; Negative Psychological impact.

Climate Change Impact On Costal India Cities: 

Cropland turning unfit for production; Rise in sea level; Species Extinction; Chronic water scarcity; Increase in incidences of extreme events; Loss of biodiversity; Urban Heat Island.

Climate Smart Cities Assessment And Its Impact: 

 To inculcate a Climate-Sensitive Approach to Urban Planning and Development, the Climate Smart Cities Assessment framework, for 100 smart cities, was launched by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. 

 The framework has 28 diverse indicators, across 5 categories namely (i) Energy and Green Buildings, (ii) Urban Planning, Green Cover & Biodiversity, (iii) Mobility and Air Quality, (iv) Water Management and (v) Waste Management.

Sustainable Cities India Program: 

 The National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) and the World Economic Forum have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to work together on a jointly developed "Sustainable Cities India programme." 

 It aims to create an enabling environment for cities to generate decarbonization solutions across the energy, transport and built environment sectors.

Types of Urban Settlements

Depending on the size and the services available and functions rendered, urban centres are designated as town, city, million city, conurbation, megalopolis. 

Town:

The concept of ‘town’ can best be understood with reference to ‘village’. Population size is not the only criterion. Functional contrasts between towns and villages may not always be clearcut, but specific functions such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.

City:

A city may be regarded as a leading town, which has outstripped its local or regional rivals. In the words of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in fact the physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life”. Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater number of economic functions. They tend to have transport terminals, major financial institutions and regional administrative offices. When the population crosses the one million mark it is designated as a million city.

Conurbation: 

The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities. Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and Tokyo are examples. 

Megalopolis:

This Greek word meaning “great city”, was popularised by Jean Gottman (1957) and signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending, as union of conurbations. The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the best known example of a megalopolis.

Million City: 

The number of million cities in the world has been increasing as never before. London reached the million mark in 1800, followed by Paris in 1850, New York in 1860, and by 1950 there were around 80 such cities. The rate of increase in the number of million cities has been three-fold in every three decades – around 160 in 1975 to around 438 in 2005.

Empowering Urban Evolution: The Smart Cities Vision in India

The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has made a recent announcement regarding the India Smart Cities Award Contest (ISAC) 2022. This event is held as a part of the broader Smart Cities Mission (SCM). The contest has recognized and honored 66 winners across diverse categories.

Notably, Indore in Madhya Pradesh and Chandigarh have taken the lead in the ISAC 2022 awards. These cities have been acknowledged for their remarkable achievements in various aspects of urban development.

National Smart City Award:

Indore clinched the prestigious national smart city award, reflecting its remarkable strides in urban development strategies. Following closely were Surat and Agra. Indore's dedication to enhancing sanitation, water supply, and the urban environment earned it recognition as a front-runner in these critical domains.

State Award:

The state award was secured by Madhya Pradesh for its holistic approach in promoting smart city initiatives within its jurisdiction. Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan followed suit, demonstrating commendable efforts in this field.

Union Territory (UT) Award:

Chandigarh was bestowed with the UT award, acknowledging its relentless endeavors to shape itself into an exemplar of a smart city.

Other Categories:

• Coimbatore stood out in the built environment category.
• Ahmedabad excelled in the culture and Integrated Command and Control Centre (ICCC) segment.
• Jabalpur showcased its prowess in the economy category.
• Chandigarh shone in governance and mobility.
• Indore led in sanitation, water, and urban environment domains.
• Vadodara was recognized for its achievements in social aspects.
• Hubbali Dharwad claimed the top spot in the innovative idea category.
• Surat's efforts in the Covid innovation category were highly appreciated.

What is ISAC:

The ISAC acknowledges and commends cities, projects, and innovative concepts that advance sustainable development within the 100 designated smart cities. It fosters cities that are not only driving inclusive, equitable, safe, healthy, and collaborative urban environments but also elevating the overall quality of life for their residents.

Having been held three times previously in 2018, 2019, and 2020, the fourth edition of ISAC was inaugurated in April 2022 during the 'Smart Cities-Smart Urbanization' event in Surat, Gujarat.

The ISAC 2022 awards incorporated a dual-phase submission process. The first phase, termed the 'Qualifying Stage,' encompassed a comprehensive evaluation of each city's overall performance. Subsequently, the 'Proposal Stage' required smart cities to nominate themselves for recognition in six distinct award categories.

These categories encompassed:

• Project Awards with ten diverse themes,
• Innovation Awards spanning two distinct themes,
• National/Zonal City Awards,
• State Awards,
• UT (Union Territory) Award, and
• Partners Awards with three varied themes.

Smart City Mission:

The Smart Cities Mission is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme that was launched in June 2015 with the objective of transforming 100 cities in India by providing essential core infrastructure and creating a clean and sustainable environment. This transformation is achieved through the implementation of "Smart Solutions" to ensure a decent quality of life for the citizens. The mission's primary focus is to fulfill the aspirations of India's urban population by undertaking various urban development projects.

Key Features:

• Area-Based Development: The mission's strategic components include area-based development, which involves retrofitting, redevelopment, and greenfield development to enhance cities. Additionally, a pan-city initiative is applied to cover larger parts of the city with smart solutions.
• Focus Areas: The scheme prioritizes the construction of amenities such as walkways, pedestrian crossings, cycling tracks, efficient waste management systems, integrated traffic management, and assessment mechanisms.
• Indices Tracking: The Smart Cities Mission evaluates multiple indices to monitor urban development progress. These indices include the Ease of Living Index, Municipal Performance Index, City GDP framework, and Climate Smart Cities assessment framework.

Achievements:

• Integrated Command and Control Centers (ICCC): One of the major achievements of the mission is the establishment of ICCC in all 100 smart cities. These centers act as operational hubs for urban management, utilizing technology to enhance various aspects of city operations. ICCCs have notably improved crime tracking, citizen safety, transport management, waste management, water supply, and disaster preparedness.
• Sectoral Progress: The Smart Cities Mission encompasses projects across various sectors, including mobility, energy, water, sanitation, public spaces, social infrastructure, and governance.
• Smart Mobility: Completion of 1,174 projects.
• Smart Energy: Successful completion of 573 projects.
• Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH): Over 1,162 projects completed.
• Public Spaces: Development of more than 1,063 public spaces.

The Smart Cities Mission is a significant initiative aimed at transforming urban areas in India into more efficient, livable, and sustainable environments through innovative technological interventions and holistic urban planning.

The India Smart Cities Award Contest (ISAC) 2022 stands as a testament to the remarkable strides made in urban development through the Smart Cities Mission. The recognition of cities, projects, and innovative ideas that foster sustainable growth is a vital step towards creating inclusive, equitable, and thriving urban environments. As we celebrate the accomplishments of Indore, Chandigarh, and other cities, we are reminded that the journey towards smart cities is a collective effort, rooted in the core principles of progress, innovation, and collaboration. With initiatives like ISAC and the broader Smart Cities Mission, India continues to pave the way towards a future where urban areas are not only technologically advanced but also enriched with quality of life for all its citizens. This positive trajectory promises to shape our cities into vibrant hubs of creativity, efficiency, and well-being.

Climate Change, Disaster risks to be included in Town Planning Act

 

Sponge city

A “sponge city” is an urban initiative that employs nature-based solutions like permeable surfaces, canals, ponds, and wetland restoration to enhance water absorption, drainage, and flood resilience. The goal is to mitigate waterlogging and urban flooding caused by rapid urbanization and impermeable surfaces.

The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so as to hold and use the water which falls upon it. Sponge cities absorb the rain water, which is then naturally filtered by the soil and allowed to reach urban aquifers.

It allows for the extraction of water from the ground through urban or peri-urban wells. This water can be treated easily and used for city water supply. In built form, this implies contiguous open green spaces, interconnected waterways, and channels and ponds across neighborhoods that can naturally detain and filter water. It implies support for urban ecosystems, bio-diversity and newer cultural and recreational opportunities.

These can all be delivered effectively through an urban mission along the lines of the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) and Smart Cities Mission.

The shallow ends surrounding the water bodies in the cities need to be protected from encroachment. Regardless of ownership of these areas, land use on even this small scale needs to be regulated by development control.

Watershed management and emergency drainage plan should be clearly enunciated in policy and law. Urban watersheds are micro ecological drainage systems, shaped by contours of terrain.

Detailed documentation of these must be held by agencies which are not bound by municipal jurisdictions; instead, we need to consider natural boundaries such as watersheds instead of governance boundaries like electoral wards for shaping a drainage plan.

To improve the city’s capacity to absorb water, new porous materials and technologies must be encouraged or mandated across scales. Examples of these technologies are bioswales and retention systems, permeable material for roads and pavement, drainage systems which allow storm water to trickle into the ground, green roofs and harvesting systems in buildings. These not only reduce run-off and the load on infrastructure, but also help keep water in the city for later use.

Issues with the “Sponge City”:

Rapid urbanization and concrete development have compromised natural water absorption, leading to waterlogging and floods. Despite the initiative, many cities remain vulnerable to flooding. Limitations include the inability of sponge city infrastructure to handle extreme rainfall events and the need to catch up with the impacts of climate change in less-developed regions.

U20 Summit Highlights : Urban Governance Challenges and Promises in India

• The recent Urban 20 (U20) summit held in Ahmedabad on July 7 and 8, 2023, has brought attention to India's urban governance and politics, offering an opportunity for introspection and improvement.
• The U20 summit, established in 2018 to facilitate discussions among G20 member countries on urban issues, presented recommendations for the upcoming G20 Heads of State and Government Summit scheduled for September 9 and 10. As Ahmedabad takes the helm of U20 leadership, the city's achievements and challenges in urban development come to the fore, prompting reflection on the country's own urban landscape.

• Urban local body Success Stories

• Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation: Ahmedabad stands as a compelling example of successful infrastructural development in the Global South. The city's implementation of innovative and liberal urban planning policies has led to notable achievements. Ahmedabad's adept management of urban expansion and execution of challenging large-scale public projects demonstrate the potential of effective urban governance.
• The Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) has executed numerous innovative measures aimed at enhancing the quality of life for its residents. Among these initiatives is the Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited (AJL), a collaborative effort between the public and private sectors that operates a network of bus rapid transit corridors.
• Pune Municipal Corporation: The Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) has gained recognition for its effective waste management strategies. These include the implementation of a door-to-door waste collection system and the establishment of a facility dedicated to waste segregation and processing.
• Surat Municipal Corporation: The Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) has leveraged technology to drive progress in infrastructure projects and has set up a centralized control room to manage emergency situations. Additionally, the SMC has focused on crafting pedestrian-friendly streets and creating multiple public parks.

• Historical Evolution of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India

  The concept of urban local bodies in India has a rich historical legacy dating back to ancient times. In ancient Indian cities, local councils and committees were responsible for maintaining order, regulating trade, and providing essential public services like water supply and waste management. During the British colonial period, elected municipal councils were introduced, with Madras (now Chennai) witnessing the establishment of the first municipal corporation in 1688. Post-independence, India retained the system of local self-government but made significant amendments, including the recognition of ULBs as a tier of government through the 74th Amendment in 1992. Today, ULBs play a pivotal role in urban development and citizen well-being.

  Current Structure of Urban Local Governance in India:

  Urban local governance in India encompasses a diverse range of bodies. Municipal Corporations manage metropolitan cities with populations exceeding one million, operating under the Mayor-in-Council system. Municipal Councils oversee intermediate cities and follow the President-in-Council model. Smaller towns are managed by Nagar Panchayats, functioning under the Chairperson-in-Council structure. Additionally, special-purpose ULBs such as Port Trusts and Industrial Development Authorities address specific urban development projects. This multi-tiered framework ensures tailored governance approaches based on the scale and needs of urban areas.

  Constitutional and Legal Framework for ULBs

  The foundation of ULBs' functioning is enshrined in the Constitution of India and statutory laws at both the national and state levels. Part IXA and the 12th Schedule of the Constitution focus on "Municipalities," outlining their establishment and composition. State Municipal Acts, unique to each state, provide the legal groundwork for ULBs' operations, detailing their composition, powers, functions, and administrative and financial protocols. The Metro Railways Act of 1978 addresses the development and maintenance of rapid transit systems in metropolitan cities, emphasizing the importance of efficient urban infrastructure.

  Challenges and Strengthening of ULBs

  ULBs in India confront several challenges that impact their effectiveness. Limited financial resources, dependence on higher government levels for decision-making, and inadequate public participation hamper their ability to address citizens' needs comprehensively. To strengthen ULBs, empowering decentralization is crucial. Granting them greater autonomy and decision-making power, coupled with enhanced financial management, can enable efficient service delivery. Capacity-building initiatives, improved transparency, collaborative governance, and increased public involvement can fortify ULBs, enhancing their ability to manage urban complexities and improve citizens' quality of life.

  Why focus on urban development?

  • Today, more than half of the global population lives in cities, and it is estimated that cities will host two-thirds of all people by 2050. Cities also consume over 75% of the world’s energy, generate 75% of related emissions, and they are experiencing the impacts of climate change first-hand.
  • However, with millions of people living in dense urban areas, cities are also most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, disasters, environmental degradation, resource depletion, chaotic growth, and socio-economic inequality.
  • It is, therefore, the right time to utilize the potential of urbanization as a catalyst to drive the ‘right’ kind of growth that is sustainable, inclusive, and equitable.

  Challenges of Exclusionary Urban Governance

  • However, Ahmedabad also serves as a case study in exclusionary urban governance. The city's socio-legal landscape is marked by communal segregation, where areas predominantly occupied by minority and underprivileged caste communities face governmental neglect. Unique legislation like the Disturbed Areas Act in Gujarat perpetuates this exclusion, inhibiting property exchange and deepening social divisions.

  U20 Communique's Promising Vision

  • The U20 summit published a Communique outlining recommendations for inclusive and sustainable urban development. Emphasizing environmentally responsible behaviors, water security, climate finance acceleration, local culture and economy empowerment, urban governance and planning reinvention, and digital urban futures catalysis, the Communique aims to address both environmental and social challenges.

  Gaps and Contradictions in U20's Vision

  • Despite its promising agenda, the U20 Communique falls short in addressing critical issues like Gujarat's Disturbed Areas Act and the politics of urban exclusion. While advocating for equality and justice in urban development, the Communique fails to acknowledge the socio-religious divisions perpetuated by such laws. Recent trends, including communal tensions and the criminalization of public religious activities in some Indian cities, contrast with the Communique's calls for equitable public spaces.

  Importance of Learning from Fellow Members

  • The participation of mayors from member countries like Argentina and the USA, who have demonstrated efficient and equitable urban development, underscores the importance of learning from fellow members. India should heed these recommendations and reflect on its urban governance against the backdrop of the U20 Communique.

  Opportunity for Self-Reflection

  • The upcoming G20 meet, for which the U20 has provided recommendations, serves as a crucial juncture for India to assess its own urban governance and politics. Over the past two decades, India has shown enthusiasm for planned urban development. However, the persistence of communal narratives and segregation has hindered inclusive progress. The U20 Communique's vision can guide India's efforts toward equitable and inclusive urban growth.

  Conclusion

  As Ahmedabad hosts the U20 summit, India's urban governance and politics come under scrutiny. The summit's recommendations offer a promising vision for inclusive and sustainable urban development. Yet, challenges like the Disturbed Areas Act and communal tensions highlight the need for comprehensive and holistic reform. India's commitment to the U20 promise necessitates a shift away from exclusionary policies, ensuring an urban future that truly embodies equality, justice, and inclusive progress.

City Investments to Innovate, Integrate and Sustain 2.0 (CITIIS 2.0)

Objective:

✓ Promote circular economy practices and integrated waste management at the city level.

✓ Implement climate-oriented reform actions at the state level.

Strengthen institutions and disseminate knowledge at the national level.

✓ Period of Scheme – The scheme will be implemented from 2023 to 2027 for a period of 4 years.

Components:

✓ Financial and technical support for climate resilience projects in 18 smart cities.

✓ Support for states and union territories in establishing climate centers, data observatories, and capacity building.

✓ Interventions to enhance climate governance at the central, state, and city levels.

Collaboration with:

✓ French Development Agency (AFD),

✓ Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW),

✓ European Union (EU), and

✓ the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA)

Funding:

✓ Loan of Rs. 1,760 crore (EUR 200 million) from AFD and KfW.

✓ Technical assistance grant of Rs. 106 crore (EUR 12 million) from the EU.

Impact:

✓ Complements India's climate initiatives and contributes to sustainable habitat, urban development, and cleanliness missions.

✓ Aligns with India's commitments under INDCs and COP26.

Disaster Management - Flood Fued

✓ The devastating floods across North India have renewed attention on the dynamic between climate change, urbanisation, and the infrastructural lacunae that bedevil India’s large cities. 

✓ India is now right in the middle of the monsoon and it is only to be expected, given the topography of the hill States, that extended rains will cause landslips, landslides and pose extreme threats to life and property. 

✓ Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Delhi are among the States that have reported record rainfall and at least 60 deaths have been confirmed though the actual toll may be higher. However, it is the inundation of Delhi, a city that is not usually associated with rains, that has brought to national focus the disasters that lie in store. 

✓ In the terminology of the India Meteorological Department, Delhi received ‘excess’ and ‘large excess’ rain on five out of eight days, from July 3-10. On July 9, it recorded 221.4 mm of rain, more than the 209.7 mm that is the average for all of July. 

✓ While this contributed to the flooding, rainfall in the last few days has dramatically reduced. And yet, large parts of the city which include iconic landmarks such as the Red Fort and the Supreme Court, continue to be flooded. 

✓ Delhi’s officials have attributed this to the flooding of the Yamuna in upstream States, particularly at Yamunanagar in Haryana, with the barrages in Delhi unable to effectively regulate and redirect the river’s flow.

✓ While urban flooding is far more frequent in Bengaluru, Chennai and Mumbai, Delhi should no longer consider itself immune given that its population and infrastructural needs are only going to expand. 

✓ Much like the National Capital Territory evolved a joint management strategy to tackle air pollution, on realising that clean air is interdependent on action by all cities, these States must set aside their differences and evolve a joint strategy on countering future floods.

✓ This however elides the role of Delhi’s infrastructural development that through the years has given short shrift to restricting construction on the Yamuna’s floodplains, failed to prioritise the desilting of drains ahead of the monsoon, and scrimped on steps to avoid the large-scale concretisation of the city. Though there is the case that even upstream of Delhi, riverbed mining has meant that huge amounts of silt from Haryana block the natural flow of the river, blame games and pointing to “record rains” are unhelpful. 
✓ The increased probability of spells of extreme rain, given warming trends in the Arctic as well as the Arabian Sea, means that there will be several more instances of flooding in the future. 

ENERGY CONSERVATION BUILDING CODE 2017 (With Amendments upto 2020)

 

LIDAR REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM